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                             EDITOR Nancy Gadbow......................Nova Southeastern University

                                        EDITORIAL BOARD

New Horizons in Adult Education, founded in 1987, is a refereed journal published by Nova Southeastern University's Programs for Higher Education. The journal provides faculty, graduate studnets, researchers, and practitioners with a means for publishing their current thinking and research within adult education and related fields;
research, thought pieces, book review, point-counter-point articles, conceptual analysis, case studies, interactive articles, and invitational columns. The authors retain copyright of individual articles. Any item that appears in New Horizons in Adult Education may be retrieved without permission. However, when this material is quoted or reproduced, the author, title of the item, and issues must be cited. The journal is transmitted electronically on the Adult Education Network (AEDNET) web page.
http://www.nova.edu/~aed/newhorizons.html

    Editor's Preface......................................................................................................
 
 

    Can We Really Teach Test-taking Skills?
    by Sharon K. Foster, Allene Paulk, and Barbara Riederer Dastoor.....................
 
 

Leadership in Continuing and Distance Education in Higher Education
by Cynthia C. Jones Shoemaker, Reviewed by Kathleen P. King……….....…....................................
 
 

HOW TO RESPOND TO ARTICLES ON AEDNET

         The article in this issue of New Horizons in Adult Education, Can  We Really Teach Test-taking Skills? focuses on a topic of interest to all adult educators who work with adult learners who experience some level of test anxiety.  Formal tests are used as the primary and often only way to measure learning in all levels of education and in a wide range of professions.  Entrance to many educational institutions and to many professions generally is determined by obtaining a particular score level on an examination.  The authors of this article, Sharon K. Foster, Allene Paulk, and Barbara Riederer Dastoor,  report on a study in which adult students were able to increase their scores on SAT tests, using a program of coaching and relaxation strategies to reduce test anxiety.  Their study results suggest the applicability of these approaches to adult learners facing many different testing  situations.

        Readers are invited to make this article "interactive" by responding on AEDNET and sharing their comments. (Directions to guide this discussion are given in this issue on page 15.)  Readers are also encouraged to submit an article for consideration by the editorial board of NEW HORIZONS on a related topic or other topic of interest relevant to adult education philosophy, research, and practice. (See Call for Manuscripts for further details.)

         Kathleen King’s review of the book Leadership in Continuing and Distance Education in Higher Education by Cynthia C. Jones Shoemaker provides a thoughtful discussion of the complexity of issues surrounding both continuing education and distance education in higher education today.
 
 

Sharon K. Foster, Omega Academy; Allene Paulk, Catalyst, Inc.; and Barbara Riederer Dastoor, Nova Southeastern University
 
 

        A group of adult learners enrolled in a teacher training program were not able to attain the state mandated scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (minimum scores on the math and language sections of the test were required for certification). Coaching and relaxation skills were introduced to alleviate test anxiety, increase the cognitive thinking processes, and provide support needed to achieve success in the testing environment. Coaching and relaxation skills proved to be effective in helping individuals achieve their goals.  Five application strategies are suggested to assist adult learners overcome test anxiety and to confidently approach the SAT, as well as other tests which adults may encounter.
 
 

        The idea of teaching test preparation skills to improve standardized test scores has been an issue for high schools and institutes of higher education for years. Prior to taking the standardized tests for admission to college, thousands of people enroll in programs to sharpen and refine their test-taking skills. During the academic year of 1997, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was taken by approximately 1.2 million college-bound students (Facts on File News Service, 1999).  Findings in this study proffer information and strategies that may be utilized by adult learners, as many state departments and universities raise the minimum SAT scores for admission.

        A literature review reveals that preparation programs for the SAT have been especially scrutinized for efficacy.   Several professionals believe that test-taking skills provide effective strategies which students can use to demonstrate their academic strengths (e.g., Eakins, Green, & Bushnell, 1976; Ford, 1973; Fuyeo, 1977; Gross, 1977; Kreit, 1968; Ortar, 1960; Sarnacki, 1979; Scruggs & Mastropieri,1992; Slakter, Koehler, & Hampton, 1970; Stevenson, 1976). The improvement a student shows after test preparation training depends on many factors; the student's attitude (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991), the length and intensity of the training (Scruggs & Tolfa, 1985), the student's prior knowledge (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik, 1983), and the extent to which test-taking skills are already being used (Manalo, 1996).  Being familiar with the testing format and materials (Scruggs & Marsing, 1988), timing structure (Hughes, 1985), and kinds of content involved in a standardized testing situation are extremely important aspects to a successful testing experience (Wahlstrom & Boersma, 1968).

Relaxation

        Within the context of test-taking preparation, relaxation techniques have been successfully implemented to assist adults in testing situations. Relaxation techniques such as muscle relaxation, deep breathing exercises, listening to selected Baroque music, and reassuring comments from teachers result in adult students developing confidence in their work and displaying a sense of control in their own learning (Diaz-Lefebrve, 1989). Maycock (1988) taught college students relaxation techniques that resulted in heightened mental focus and concentration as they took final examinations. By incorporating relaxation techniques into their study habits, adult learners in Krattner and Hogan's study (1982) reported freedom from distractibility.

Relaxation Reduces Test Anxiety

Coaching

        Legendary coaches such as Vince Lombardi, John Wooden, and Don Schula developed winning programs that exemplified how coaching engages the mental, emotional, philosophical, and spiritual parts of the individual as much as the physical body (Jensen, 1994).  The term "coaching", when applied to test preparation programs, involves maintaining rapport between the instructor and student through matching the general degree of eye contact, noticing and adjusting to any unique cultural, language, etiquette or behavioral norms, noticing key facial expressions, and observing personal space perimeters (Bandler & Grinder, 1986).  Coaching has been determined to be a critical factor for attaining successful results with adult learners (Reece, 1993). Coaching programs which adhere to strict practice, drill, and feedback show a significant positive effect on math scores for adult students (Reynolds & Oberman, 1987). Slack and Porter (1980) synthesized many earlier studies on coaching and concluded that it effectively helped students raise SAT scores. Messick and Jungeblut (1981) and Wildemuth (1983) reported studies where students incorporated coaching while preparing for the SAT and increased SAT scores greater than the group of students who did not.

Participants

        The authors were called to work with a teacher preparation institution that had students who had not been successful in attaining the state-required SAT cut-off score for admission into the teacher education program.  The university identified fifteen individuals as potential candidates for the intervention.  After contacting all students, eight volunteered to participate in the test-taking instruction.  The group of volunteers shared three commonalties:

    1. Each had taken the test one to seven times and had not achieved the minimum score required by the state department.
    2. Every person reported test anxiety that included negative and discouraged
 feelings about the preparation process, the test setting, and the idea of having to retake the test.
    3.  All qualified for financial aid, which inhibited their ability to pay for a professional preparation course (ranging in price from $150 to $1200).

Intervention Procedures

        Individuals made a commitment to meet regularly during the eight weeks prior to their testing date.   The researchers met weekly for three hours with each individual to concentrate on specific content (such as, reading comprehension, spelling, graph/map interpretation, and mathematical computation).  The learning environment was made pleasant and comfortable with care being given to individual preferences for room temperature, seating, lighting and background music.  Ways to strengthen study skills and habits were discussed.  All participants were encouraged to choose a 20-40 minute block of time each day for concentrated, uninterrupted study.

        The first part of each three-hour session centered on coaching students toward the establishment of specific, attainable goals. Goals were elicited by asking questions such as the following: What is important to you and why?  Why do you want to improve your SAT score?  What have you accomplished in a week? and What do you want to accomplish next week?  Future goals and plans were clarified to help individuals make decisions based upon priorities.  Weekly achievements and accomplished goals were celebrated with words of praise and affirmations, which students developed and were encouraged to use daily.

        During the second part of the session, relaxation techniques were practiced to alleviate test anxiety and strengthen concentration.  Students were asked to follow the relaxation exercises orally directed by the researchers.  An example of a relaxation exercise follows:

    Focus your awareness on a spot on the wall or if you choose, close your eyes. Let
go of the tension in your feet, legs, lower torso, chest, back, hands, arms, neck and head. Feel a warm glow through each muscle in your body. Think about a time in the near future where you find yourself in a testing situation. Imagine feeling relaxed, confident, and full of vitality. Intermittently make body checks to see if your muscles are still calm. If you find a muscle that is tense, tell it to relax and continue the testing, imagining the muscle as relaxed until you are finished.  Now, think about a time in the past when you received the score you wanted on a test. Recreate the situation. How did you feel?  What kinds of messages do you hear about your performance?   If you hear positive words, accept them and claim
them for yourself.  Feel comfortable with these statements of truth.  If you hear negative, doubting messages, stop them. Erase them and replaced with positive, constructive messages such as, “I have prepared well for this test. I know the material. I will pass this test.”  See the score you want to make in your favorite color or setting.  Picture the report you receive in the mail, with your name and the score you want to make.  Notice how you feel.

    In the last part of the session, test-content cues were presented.  All students had difficulty decoding and spelling unfamiliar words.  As the test-taker came upon an unknown word, they were asked to read (visual) the sentence without the word and substitute a word from their own vocabulary that would make sense.  Students then used the new vocabulary word(s) in their own creative sentences with as much humor as possible.  To increase spelling competency, words from the “Most Commonly Misspelled Words in the English Language” were spelled orally (auditory) in melodic chants and rhythms.  Students were encouraged to clap hands, stomp feet, and/or move their body (kinesthetic) while spelling in rhythmic patterns. Consequently, visual, auditory and kinesthetic approaches had all three been woven into the learning activity.

    Test-takers had difficulty reading tables and computation in the math section.  To help extrapolate, several tables, maps, charts, and graphs were enlarged (3’X5’) and coded in different colors.  Information that was important to notice first was marked with primary colors (red, blue, yellow), while pastel colors indicated less important or irrelevant information.  When working with computation skills, students were given “real life” tangible items (such as, money, candy, car keys) to assist with conceptualizing abstract mathematical concepts.

Results

        Two of the eight students withdrew from the project due to illness.  Three of the remaining six participants retook the SAT immediately after the eight-week sessions and achieved scores of 840 or higher.  Two retook the SAT within 3 months and scored above 840.  One score improved, but did not reach 840.  A nonparametric procedure was used to examine the differences between the scores before and after intervention. The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test showed that there is a significant difference between the scores of the 6 students before the intervention and the scores after at greater than .05 level (P=.0277).

        Prior to going into the testing  environment students reported feeling  confident about their abilities.  A  student who  had previously taken the test three times commented, “I really  spent a lot of  time getting my head together before the test. As I sat down to begin, a calmness seemed to come over me. When I finished, I knew which items I missed and which were correct. I had done well this time.”  Others reported having more composure  as they entered the testing situation. One student put it this way, “ I went into the test site with my head high , feeling like a winner.  I remembered to keep taking deep, peaceful breathes....I kept thinking, ‘You can do this.  You can succeed.’  And, I did!  This stuff really works!”  All of the participants stated that they started adapting the relaxation techniques to use with other subjects and events  that caused tension.

     The following educational applications have been created from successful techniques used in this project and feedback from the participants.  These applications may spark the interest of educators seeking to improve student test performance or professionals who work with individuals exhibiting test anxiety.  These ideas can be adapted to any age learner, but have been intensively researched with college age and adult learners. They have been successfully used not only with academic tests  (GED, ACT, GRE,    LLSAT,GMAT), but also with professional tests (real estate, insurance, mortgage broker, stockbrokers) as well as massage therapists, addictions professionals, and nurses.

        1.  Purpose.  Firmly establish WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME (WIIFM).  One of the most important aspects of intrinsic motivation is the learners keeping alive what they will gain by learning:  Is it graduating, getting accepted to the college of your choice, pleasing significant others, getting a scholarship, and/or getting a license?

        2.  Affirmation.  Suggest that the learners attach a slogan, cheer for affirmation to their reason for wanted to do well on the test.  Share it with someone else in a meaningful manner, using a visual re-enforcement (such as, a T-shirt, a computer graphic, a school color or mascot).  An example would be an auditory slogan such as “University, here I come!” or “It’s the year 2005 and I am Dr. So and So.”  Add a significant hand movement or gesture to go with it and stimulate the visual and kinesthetic learning senses.

        3.  Modalities.  Individual learning modalities or preferences cannot always be matched in a large classroom setting.  However, the fuller the visual, auditory and kinesthetic presentations are made, the more likely the learner will remember, integrate, and retrieve the material when tested.  For example, a teacher may lecture (auditory), write on the board, (visual) and have students role play an important concept (kinesthetic), attach a gesture to the important idea (kinesthetic) or have the group cheer, chant, repeat in unison (auditory).  Breaking up into small groups for discussion provides opportunity for fuller representation of the modalities.  The spatial movement of chairs and bodies provides kinesthetic stimulation, the new postures provide a different view visually, the discussion provides the opportunity for auditory output (talking) and auditory input (listening to other voices talk about the idea).  Just standing up at appropriate intervals can enhance learning (Jensen, 1994).  Imagine the ‘”sweet smell of success” or “taste of the fruit of your labor”.  Olfactory or gustatory anchors can be very powerful for some people.

        4.  Positive Anchors.  Ask students to close their eyes and recall the first time they ever remember feeling proud of something.  Maybe they could run fast, or make their bed up nicely, tie their shoes or some other childhood developmental task for which they were praised or felt proud.  Then proceed to another time, perhaps they got an “A” on a spelling test or won a ribbon on their team won a game.  Repeat until all of the  learners have gathered several examples, always asking them to stack all of their example together.  Hold the good feelings perhaps on their thumb, forehead or chest, where they are most easily assessable.  Suggest that the learners look around the room and see if they can easily recall all of the good feelings.  Practice three times.  Each time will help to strengthen the good feeling and the ease of assessing it.  This process now becomes a positive resource anchor that they can recall at will, as they approach the test time.

        5.  Mental simulations (dress rehearsal).  Ask the learner to run a mental dress rehearsal of the 24 hours before the big test.  Suggest that they have a fun relaxing day, perhaps listening to music or watching movies.  Discuss eating their favorite nutritious food in moderation, getting some mild exercise, and preparing for a restful nights sleep, dreaming pleasant dreams of doing well on the test.  Decide if they want to dress comfortably in jeans or study clothes, or perhaps dress more formally in career clothes.  Some learners may enjoy taking their favorite charm, wearing a special piece of jewelry, or carrying a symbol of their religious faith.  Imagine doing whatever is necessary to feel good, ready to go and score well.

    Teaching test-taking skills that include relaxation and coaching are supported in he literature. Relaxation and coaching involve qualities within the affective domain and need further study to document applicability.  Students can perform academic achievements when structured support is provided.  Coaching and relaxation techniques are valuable aspects of a test preparation program.  To return to the title question. ”Can We Really Teach Test-taking Skills?”, this study would suggest that certain techniques can be taught, which appear to help students perform better on tests than they have previously.   Further research will be needed to substantiate this premise.
 
 

        Bandler, R. & Grinder, J. (1986). Using Your Brain - for a change. Moab, UT, Real People Press.

        Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulik, J.A., & Kulik, C.(1983). Effects of coaching programs on achievement test performance. Review of Educational Research, 53, 571-585.

        Bodner, G.M. (1983, August). Verbal, numerical and perceptual skills related to chemistry achievement. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim,CA.

        Diaz-Lefebvre, R. (May,1989). I just didn't have enough time.…  Assisting the busy learner develop critical reading and thinking skills. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Conference on Teaching Excellence, Phoenix, AZ.

        Eakins, D.J., Green, D.S., & Bushnell, D. (1976). The effects of an instructional test-taking unit on achievement test scores. Journal of Educational Research, 70, 67-71.

        Erwin, B., & Dinwiddie, E.T. (1983). Test without trauma. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.

        Facts on File News Service (1999), Facts on file yearbook.  (Research Issue No. 58, p. 52). Library of Congress, Primedia Co.

        Ford, V. A. (1973).  Everything you wanted to know about testwiseness (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 093 912).

        Fuyeo, V. (1977). Training test-taking skills: A critical analysis.  Psychology in the Schools, 14, 180-184.

        Gross, L.J. (1977). The effects of test-wiseness on standardized test performance. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 21(2), 97-111.

        Hughes, C. (1985). A test-taking strategy for emotionally disturbed and learning disabled adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville.

        Jensen, E. (1994). The Learning Brain.  Del Mar, CA:  Turning Point Publishing.

        Kratter, J. & Hogan, J.D. (1982). The use of meditation in the treatment of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. (Report No. 143). New York. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 232 787)

        Kreit, L.H. (1968). The effects of test-taking practice on pupil test performance. American Educational Research Journal, 5, 616-625.

        Lloyd, J., & Landrum, T. (1990). Self-recording of attending to task: Treatment components and generalization of effects. In T.E. Scruggs & B.Y.L. Wong (Eds.), Intervention research in learning disabilities (pp. 235-632). New York: Springer Verlag.

        Manalo, E.  (1996).  Effectiveness of an intensive learning skills course for university students on restricted enrollment.  Higher Education Research and Development, 15(2), 189-199).

        Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge: Brookline Books.

        Maycock, G. (1988). The three-fingers technique: Does it reduce test anxiety. (Report No. TMO1-4-766). North Carolina. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 318 750)

        Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. (1980). Toward a conceptual model for the treatment of  test anxiety: Implications for research and treatment.  In I.G. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research and applications (pp. 187-208). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

        Messick, S., & Jungeblut, A. (1981). Time and method in coaching for the SAT. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 191-216.

        Ortar,G. (1960). Improving test validity by coaching. Educational Research, 2, 137-142.

        Ostrander S. & Schroeder, L.  (1994).  Superlearning.  New York:  Delacorte Press.

        Phi Delta Kappa (Ed.) (1989). Test anxiety. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa.

        Reece, B. L. (1993). Learn from experience: Special considerations for teaching adult students. Vocational Education Journal, 68(7), 28-29.

        Reynolds, A.J. & Oberman, G.L. (Apr,1987). An analysis of a PSAT preparation program for urban gifted students. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC.

        Sarnacki, R.E. (1979). An examination of test-wiseness in the cognitive domain. Review of Educational Research, 49, 252-279.

        Scruggs, T.E., & Marsing, L. (1988). Teaching test-taking skills to behaviorally disordered students. Behavioral Disorders, 13, 240-244.

        Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Teaching test-taking skills. Purdue University: Brookline Books.

        Scruggs, T.E., & Tolfa, D. (1985). Improving the test-taking skills of learning disabled students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60, 847-850.

        Slack, W. V., & Porter, D. (1980). The Scholastic Aptitude Test: A critical appraisal. Harvard Educational Review.50(3), 394-401.

        Slaker, M.J., Koehler, R.A., & Hampton, S.H. (1970). Learning test-wiseness by programmed tests. Journal of Educational Measurement, 7, 247-254.

        Stevenson, P.C. (1976). Improving the learning disabled child's score on machine-scored tests. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 17-19.

        Wahlstrom, M., & Boersma, F.J. (1968). The influence of test-wiseness upon achievement. Educational Psychological Measurement, 28, 413-420.

        Wildemuth, B. (1983). Coaching for tests. (Contract No. 400-83-0015). Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.

        Wine, J. (1980). Cognitive-attentional theory of test anxiety. In S.B. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, practice, and applications (pp. 349-385). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
 
 

        At first sight, Shoemaker's book may get lost in the vast literature on educational leadership; however, upon closer inspection the title gives pause.  Leadership in Continuing and Distance Education in Higher Education certainly garners attention as it sets out to discuss leadership within this very specific and demanding context.  The book is quite successful in doing just that, but what I was most impressed with was the comprehensive collection of valuable resource material in one volume. Shoemaker draws on her considerable experience in Continuing Education to present a book that provides a foundation for administrative leadership and management theory and practice.

         The strengths of the book are many, but most notable is the focus on theory applied to practice. This strength is evidenced in Shoemaker's comprehensive presentation of theory in leadership, organizational theory, and management, while also providing innumerable examples and suggestions for management and leadership in Continuing Education. These examples and suggestions are presented in such a way that they serve as reminders, or confirmation, for the experienced administrator, and yet they are presented with enough detail and explanation to introduce the novice to practice in the field. The extensive appendixes Shoemaker provides to aid the reader in applying the concepts presented further complement this practical aspect of the book.

        The first section, Challenges and Changes in Continuing Education, describes the context of Higher Education. Shoemaker does not solely rely on theory or generalities, but instead discusses the present state, issues, and trends of Continuing Education in Higher Education. For example, Shoemaker does not just mention technology, but introduces distance learning issues for Continuing Education. This focus on bringing important issues into a practical application continues to ground her work throughout the book.

        Understanding leadership within the Higher Education institution is the focus of the second section of the book, Leadership for the 21st Century in Continuing Education. This is not just a presentation of leadership theory; instead, Shoemaker addresses the needs of Continuing Education leaders with both background theory and suggestions for practice. While retaining its academic focus, the book offers specific guidance in many ways to make decisions, plan work in teams, motivate staff, faculty, and students, and problem solve. Shoemaker has embedded the riches of management and leadership theory and practice into readily employable models for the reader-practitioner.

        Unusual for a leadership book, the Marketing and Finances in Continuing Education section provides some valuable guidance for the Continuing Educator in regard to these important topics. Although it has only two chapters, one on Marketing and the other on Finances, they offer succinct presentations and discussions of those elements particularly important for the Continuing Education leader. These are definitely chapters that practitioners will refer to again and again as they plan and conduct programs

        The Appendixes could really be regarded as another substantial section in this book within which Shoemaker has compiled mission statements, marketing plans, and program reports for reference. These are especially valuable for beginning administrators to better understand the possible content and form of such documents. The Appendixes also have a unique Distance Education resource of support organizations, Distance Education institutions, and examples of one institution's distance learning supporting documents.

        Finally, the book is well written and documented; while maintaining a flow to her thought and word, Shoemaker generously documents her work so those desiring further information or original sources may locate them readily. These references are included following each chapter, which further facilitates contemplation of and access to the relevant information.

        The criticisms I have regarding the book are from the standpoint of technology and Distance Education. First, incumbent to the limitations of book production time-lines, the specific references to "current" technology and practice are already dated. Second, this book has Distance Education in its title, and yet the material specifically relevant to Distance Education is limited. I see the focus really on Continuing Education in Higher Education that includes a discussion of Distance Education issues and practice, but I do not see this as a book that treats Distance Education to the same depth that it does Continuing Education, as the title suggests.

        Overall, Shoemaker successfully presents a noteworthy resource to support Continuing Education leadership. The broad theoretical foundation and practical, contextual presentation makes this a valuable book for Continuing Educators to read and have available for further reference.

        To respond to the article CAN WE REALLY TEACH TEST-TAKING?, please send your comments to AEDNET identifying the subject as “TEACH TEST-TAKING.” Responses and discussion on this article is encouraged until December 23, 1999.

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           New Horizons in Adult Education, founded in 1987, is a refereed electronic journal that provides faculty, graduate students, researchers, and practitioners with a means for publishing their current thinking and research within adult education and related fields. The journal is published two or three times a year and is transmitted through electronically on the Adult Education Network webpage --AEDNET.

           New Horizons in Adult Education  publishes research, thought pieces, book review, point-counter-point articles, conceptual analysis, case studies, interactive articles, and invitational columns. The editorial staff welcomes articles for review submitted either electronically or in a variety of disk formats through regular mail. Guidelines for manuscript submission are available on the AEDNET and New Horizons in Adult Education web page at: http://www.nova.edu~aed/newhorizons.html
 

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