From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:32:14 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:14:13 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL4N1 (1/1) Archive HORIZONS, file vol4n1. Part 1/1, total size 84947 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ *************************************************************************** *************************************************************************** **************************** **************************** ********************* ********************* *************** *************** ************ *********** ******** ******** ****** ****** **** NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION **** *** *** ** ** *************************************************************************** Volume 4 Number 1 Spring/Summer 1990 *************************************************************************** EDITOR Linda Newell.........................Syracuse University CONSULTING EDITORS Michael Erskine Ehringhaus...........Syracuse University Jane M. Hugo.........................Syracuse University EDITORIAL BOARD Judith Gwinn Adrian..................University of Wisconsin Sue Collard..........................University of British Columbia Ted Finlayson-Schueler...............Syracuse University Wayne Hartschuh......................Arizona State University Tim Murrell..........................Pennsylvania State University Richard Novak........................Rutgers University Christine Olgren.....................University of Wisconsin Judith Potter........................Ontario Institute for Studies in Education David Price..........................University of Missouri-Columbia Anita Prieto.........................University of Missouri-Columbia Lowell Roberts.......................SUNY Empire State College Alice Schawo.........................University of Missouri-Columbia Tom Sudduth..........................University of Wyoming Butch Wilson.........................University of Georgia _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is a refereed journal published by the Syracuse University Kellogg Project. The journal is managed by graduate students throughout the United States and Canada and is electronically transmitted via the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), accessible through BITNET. There is no cost for NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION; it is sent to all subscribers of AEDNET. All correspondence concerning change of address or membership in AEDNET should be addressed to AEDNET, Syracuse University Kellogg Project, 310 Lyman Hall, 108 College Place, Syracuse, New York 13244-1270. Send all article submissions to the Editor at the above address or in ASCII through BITNET (HORIZONS@SUVM). _________________________________________________________________________ N E W H O R I Z O N S IN A D U L T E D U C A T I O N CONTENTS Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 I N V I T A T I O N A L C O L U M N Straight Time and Standard Brand Adult Education John Ohliger.....................................................1 A R T I C L E S A Comparison of Folk High Schools in Denmark, and East and West Germany Robert Wendel....................................................5 A Descriptive Appraisal of Functional Literacy in Nigeria Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi..........................11 B O O K R E V I E W Intentional Changes David Price......................................................18 F R O M T H E E D I T O R S' D E S K Electronic Publishing Puts Byte into Academic Publishing Jane M. Hugo.....................................................23 F O R Y O U R I N F O R M A T I O N Call for Manuscripts, Fall/Winter 1991 Issue _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 INVITATIONAL COLUMN by John Ohliger Basic Choices, Inc. There are at least three perfectly legitimate ways of experiencing time: First, as straight time, the march forward from past, present, to future. Clocks and calendars measure it. Second, time just is. It is a fundamental context of our lives. There is no past, present, future. Modern physicists and ancient philosophies agree here. Third, time neither marches only forward, nor just is. It also stops, speeds up, slows down, circles, and it weaves itself into a thousand landscapes of time. Almost everyone who has been in love, has basked in the time-stopping beauty of a sun-warmed day, or remembers idyllic timeless moments from childhood attests to the reality of this third oceanic time sense. There are at least three perfectly legitimate ways of experiencing adult education: First, in its standard brand varieties, as classes, or other (usually larger) institutionally organized instructional contexts, designed to help people make adjustments TO prevailing values. Second, as classes, or other (usually smaller) institutionally organized contexts, designed to help people make adjustments OF prevailing values. Third, as an embedded, culturally integral, generally undesigned and noninstitutionalized activity where the structure and the values are either personally or collectively self-chosen or unconscious. Two Theses First, the history of the growing dominance of straight time is inextricably linked with the history of the increasing hegemony of standard brand adult education. page 1 / Ohliger Second, the mixed blessing of the growing attention to all kinds of time is inextricably linked with the mixed curse of conventional lifelong education's increasing takeover of the populace's available straight time. To Elaborate As industrial society encompassed more and more of daily life in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, straight, linear, point-to-point time became more and more the concern of the power elite through, for example, the unilateral introduction of standard time zones and time- efficiency emphases in factories. During the same period adult education became identified as a modern concern. Though there were some approaches challenging or bypassing the power of the few in the new field of adult education, conventional slot-fitting adult education quickly prevailed then until now more than half the adult population is forced to go back to school to correct some social problem, even though there is no evidence that any of this compulsory adult education is solving these problems. Though early leaders of modern adult education such as Eduard Lindeman, Everett Martin, and Dorothy Canfield Fisher fostered alternatives or cautioned about the dangers of absorption in the economy of the day, adult education more and more aped the school and university systems. As one example of the challenges from early leaders: Twelve years after the opening of the 20th century Eduard Lindeman spoke of "our unhealthy haste in everything." He labeled it "the American idea." And then in his 1926 classic THE MEANING OF ADULT EDUCATION Lindeman declared: "Adjustments to the propelling forces in the modern world cannot be fruitfully achieved until intellectual, moral, and spiritual values emerge which are capable of giving direction and meaning to life. Optimistic interpreters explain the lack of these values in modern life in terms of time alone: they contend that science and the technologies are merely ahead of our capacities for adjustment-- that we will soon catch up; or, if it happens that we never can catch up, we may rest content in acknowledging the inevitable 'lag.' But if life is to have more meaning than is implied in making up time, in overcoming lags, we shall need to learn how to make adjustments OF not TO." As the millennium approaches in this last decade of the 20th century, so-called postindustrial society advocates enmesh people further in the demands of the clock, in adjustments TO time, while many adult educators rejoice in the centrality of the conventional portions of their field as the recipient of more funds and personnel than all other areas of education--elementary, secondary, and higher-- combined, occupying more and more of people's clock time. page 2 / Ohliger Straight time--as the inevitable, forward, and regimented movement from past, through the present, to the future--had been a unique characteristic of Judeo-Christian civilization from its early days. Hope of getting beyond this single vision view of time appeared on the horizon, however, from the late 19th century on in science, literature, the visual arts, folkways, and religious philosophy. Linear time was challenged at least momentarily: in science through the development of the relativity theories of Einstein and others; in literature through the attention to different time states in the novels of Proust, Woolf, Wilder, and others; in the visual arts through the multi-time paintings of Picasso and others; in folkways through the persistence of "once-upon-a-time" fairy tales, and other common figures of speech; and in religious philosophy through the attention to alternative time views in the approaches rediscovered from ancient non-patriarchal societies, and from India, China, and other Eastern civilizations. What made these developments a mixed blessing was that they were often caught up in the measurement obsession of the linear view or imported without recognition of some of the disadvantages of the original cultural context. Because these developments were sometimes time-haunted and out-of-context, the rising hopes that more relaxed views of time--accompanied by an acceptance of eternity as a present state, not one postponed until after death--lost momentum. As these mixed signs of hope for getting beyond a singular vision of time were appearing, the curse of lifelong all-encompassing universal compulsory instruction was gaining ground; first in the school system for children, then in higher education, and most recently in adult education. What makes it a mixed curse is the fact that--besides the cracks that continue to exist in the system of lifelong forced learning some people still do manage to learn to begin to liberate themselves-- sometimes even in the courses they are required to take--despite the pressures in conventional directions. The current panoply of degrees, credentials, and continuing education units based on required courses saves the time of the administrators of the economic system while stealing the time of everyone else. For instance, employers don't need to make informed judgments in hiring or promotion. They can rely more on requiring certain pieces of paper from educational institutions or from in-house programs instead of depending on interaction with potential employees or supervisors. page 3 / Ohliger But some people still do find worthwhile educational paths on their own: By serendipity, through the subversive encouragement of their instructors; or through the assistance of some ecologically valuable approaches like the work of Jeremy Rifkin who calls for a democratic recognition that everyone's time is equally valuable; some socialist proposals like those of Andre Gorz who declares there is an "urgent need to create a society which rejects the work ethic in favor of an emancipatory ethic of free time;" some heart-opening Eastern approaches like the Taoism of Lao Tzu who recognizes the revolutionary priority of nonlinear time over space; and some liberating approaches of feminists like Sonia Johnson who says: "Time is what there is an unlimited supply of in the universe. Any beneficent society that is not simply the old one under a different rubric must first free our time, give us 'free time' That such an expression as 'free time' exists is evidence that the rest of our time is 'slave time.'" However, these personal possibilities for adult learners still leave a serious dilemma for adult educators hoping to get beyond the straitjacketing march of time and the mass marketing of brand name continuing education. Traditionally, adult educators have been able to be of service to the growth of a free society by encouraging movements such as that for the introduction of the public schools with their support of the lyceums in the early 19th century. But their very success then leads to greater difficulties now. The schooling system is not only in place as a modest path to learning but has now captured the lives and time of most people including adults. Simply encouraging new or different educational activities is no way out because it just adds to the already overwhelming anti-ecological glut of programs. The solution to this dilemma is that we all be on the lookout in our daily lives for ways to break free ourselves and encourage others---individually and collectively--to find fresh paths to better views of time and adult education as well. Some of the ecological, socialist, Eastern, feminist, scientific, literary, religious, and other approaches mentioned above can be helpful in leading us toward the day when time is truly free and adult education is universally defined as "friends educating each other." I write as if I'm absolutely sure of the truth of the views above, but all statements are presented as speculative and tentative, designed to encourage discussion in which I'll be glad to join. The documentation and the sources of quotations are available in THE MILLENNIUM SURVIVAL KIT, Second Edition, 730 W. Jefferson, Springfield, IL 62702: Basic Choices, 1990, 110 pages. $15 paid in advance in U.S. funds. The price for this indexed document on two 5 l/4 inch floppy discs is $20 paid in advance in U.S. funds. page 4 / Ohliger ************************************************************************ John Ohliger, Director of Basic Choices, Inc., requests any information and views you might have on the past, present, and future of "social philosophy" in adult education or in general for a talk ("Take a Social Philosopher to Lunch This Week") he is giving at the Social Philosophy Luncheon during the Fall 1990 National Adult Education Conference in Salt Lake City. Further details are available from him at the address noted above. _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 A COMPARISON OF FOLK HIGH SCHOOLS IN DENMARK, AND EAST AND WEST GERMANY by Robert Wendel Miami University - Ohio Abstract Adult education in Eastern Europe is experiencing limited funding and at the same time stiff competition from other agencies and institutions. The status of the Volkschochschule, or folk high school, is of particular importance. Private trade and commercial schools, as well as universities, are searching for new clients and offering both general and specialized courses for adults. Low literate youth and adults who lack job skills are in need of education. For example, immigrant laborers are demanding citizenship and better economic packages, including educational benefits for their children. Yet, reductions in local and national funding are forcing schools to operate below adequate levels. Given the diminishing resources, who is going to serve the adult population, including older adults, those who experience disabilities, and those who lack job related skills? This article, based on a series of interviews in Denmark, East Germany, and West Germany, looks at some of the social, political, and economic problems, especially as they relate to the folk high schools in these countries. page 5 / Wendel Introduction Folk high schools evolved out of the 19th century needs for people trained in techniques of farming and commerce (Kulich, 1980; Rordam, 1984). In addition, churches began offering common people general education opportunities focused on learning to read and write. Trade unions founded schools for their workers and families, while private schools offered training in many technical areas for those wanting a skill and employment (Poulsen, personal communication). In the 20th century, the folk high school expanded its offerings to include business training, domestic science, mathematics, science and technology, general education, language study, cultural education, senior citizen courses, and secondary school certificates (Mepham, personal communication). There is significant popular sentiment favoring the folk high school, as many of its "graduates" are now politicians and business leaders. However, when folk school directors were asked what their greatest needs are, increased funding was always mentioned first. Local or state support is supplemented by tuition collected from adult students who themselves are not always able to pay the nominal fees because of unemployment and excessive expenses connected with families, health, food, housing, and transportation. Creative alternatives to the traditional folk school are being developed. An extension of the folk school is the study circle were a small group of people having a common interest gather with a tutor to discuss a particular topic under the auspices of the school (Mepham, personal communication). Traveling folk high schools are also increasing in popularity due mainly to broad travel into parts of the world that provide challenge, inquiry, and personal growth opportunities for the individual. Poulsen (personal communication) describes this as a newer form of international folk schooling whereby the government partially subsidizes the costs allowing a group of adults to pursue such worldly courses as building housing in Africa, helping drug addicts start new lives, or studying and developing strategies for world peace. Popular especially in Scandanavia, West Germany, and Great Britain, this form of adult education is changing in order to compete more effectively for students, many of whom are drawn toward private commercial schools. Even universities, as they search for new clients in order to keep their faculty employed, are reaching down to this level and offering more specialized vocational courses leading to employment. On a recent trip to West Germany, Denmark, and East Germany, I studied the Volkschochschule. The folk high school's future looks secure, but it is not without serious challenges. page 6 / Wendel Denmark Interesting trends are apparent in the folk schools of Denmark where in 1844, at the urging of Grundtvig, a theologian interested in history and educating the peasant farmer, small groups of farmers were organized to discuss improvements in farming methods and to give the people a sense of personal history (Kulich, 1984; Rordam, 1980). Later, agricultural colleges developed from this movement as the early model evolved into residential folk schools of which there are about 100 presently in Denmark, according to Himmelstrup (personal communication). Secretary General Himmelstrup went on to say that it is estimated that one-fourth of five million Danes are enrolled in tuition-free folk schools where no exams and no papers are required. Serving mainly women, young adults, and foreign workers, more popular offerings at these folk schools are languages, reading, writing, history, mathematics, career exploration, and data processing. Government subsidy in Denmark is available to whomever can gather 12 to 15 people together for a common purpose in an appropriate facility to study for a length of time (Himmelstrup, personal communication). Serious concern was expressed by government and folk school officials noted Poulsen (personal communication) over the drastic decline in the Danish birth rate, predicted to approach zero in five years. As a result of this low birth rate, teaching is seldom seen as a viable profession and many former teachers are retraining in business and technological fields. East Germany Folk high schools in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) are a direct link between people's education and higher education at the university level. The GDR folk schools serve the equivalent 10th grade student, the general education needs of adults, and the university entrance level of 12th grade completion. According to Professor Dr. Mohle of Karl Marx University in Leipzig (personal communication), the folk school cooperates with numerous agencies-sometimes as many as 40 collaborations between adult education groups and folk schools-in offering training programs at "factory academies" for retraining and raising workers' skill levels and general education knowledge. The most frequently offered courses are languages, sciences, literature, history, cultural interest courses, and typing, while more technical and computer related courses are the responsibility of other agencies, for example the engineering school. Commrade Verdo and his staff at the Leipzig Folk School in East Germany (personal communication) provided a picture of the typical East German adult attending their folk school: adults range in age from 20-70 years old, of whom 40% are women in technical training, satisfying leisure interests, involved in parent education, or doing a program culminating in a certificate. The folk school is served by a staff of 40 teachers with university diplomas and 250 part-time specialty instructors teaching 4-6 lessons per week for the 8000 people taking 500 courses per term. page 7 / Wendel West Germany By acts of national and local legislatures, folk high schools in West Germany have gained legal status, procedures for governance, and methods for financing themselves. Folk school researcher Poulsen (personal communication) reported that local city councils in West Germany support the Volkschochschule. In my interview with Dr. Pfeil, he confirmed that in West Germany 23% of the workers are foreign born from Turkey and Yugoslavia. They come with a low education level and they continue to lack resources for education. Of the students attending West German folk schools, two-thirds are women, most without substantial incomes for education. The Turkish worker in West Germany, besides adjusting to a foreign environment, is Moslem. This religion restricts women to the home, to child care and cooking and shopping duties. Many Turkish husbands are reluctant to allow their wives to attend the folk school-although some women now do-to learn consumer economics, reading, and writing. The poor and unemployed have little energy, time, motivation, or money for literacy training. However, more political attention is now being given to educational opportunities for older citizens and the handicapped because national pride among the West Germans is at stake. Volk high schools (VHS) exist mainly to provide self-growth experiences, help people develop language proficiency, and offer courses leading to selected technical certificates and classes in business and mathematics. Some retraining courses are offered in the daytime but almost 80% of the classes are held in the evenings, as is typical throughout the VHS in Europe (Pfeil, 1984). Job training, as opposed to general and leisure education offered by the VHS, is offered both by unions and private-commercial business schools (Kubly, 1983). These special interest schools serve selected clientele such as union officials and members and employees of businesses seeking to upgrade their skills in such fields as computer technology. Most of these commercial courses are shorter in duration and considerably more expensive than courses offered by the VHS. Budgetary restrictions do not allow the VHS to offer extensive training in computer applications as commercial schools are able to do. Clearly, the purposes of the two differ, but this division also creates competition for limited resources. The trend appears to be a stratification of offerings according to the needs of selected populations, the origin of funding sources (public or private), and the effectiveness of programs in helping people get jobs and in developing themselves. Folk schools are using more volunteers to teach high-demand courses that are less profitable than more regular offerings staffed by full-time adult educators, who seem to have little time for their own professional development outside of teaching their specialties (Himmelstrup, personal communication). page 8 / Wendel Adult education in West Berlin includes the offerings of folk high schools which are independent of any Ministry of Education. Serving mainly those persons who dropped out of the comprehensive school at age 16, the VHS provides courses of study leading to the 10th grade certificate, to acquiring the "high school equivalent" diploma, and entrance into trade schools and the university. Professor Doerry (personal communication) described the folk high school as primarily an evening program for housewives, foreign born workers, leisure time students, and career minded adults seeking skill development. Its more popular offerings are languages, business, the social sciences, mathematics and science, literature, history, and computer science. As state economic support for the VHS wanes in West Berlin and as the universities expand their cooperative education ventures with government, private, and vocational organizations, the VHS is compelled to initiate ways of establishing collaborative arrangments with trade unions, churches, community agencies, and other interested publics who want shorter courses of a more personal- growth nature, offerings that may also be applied toward special certificates (Buchner, personal communication). Summary A closer look at the folk schools in these three countries reveals the following observations: 1) Folk schools have historically served the function of educating the masses but are now competing directly with the church, private, commercial, and trade schools, as well as universities, for students. This competition is blurred by a lack of clear responsibility and purpose as these agencies struggle to attract a limited population during a time of reduced funding and higher cost. 2) These conditions may compel both West Germany and Denmark to better coordinate programs among several institutions, public and private, in order to bring focus to program offerings and avoid duplication. Both nations have a history of rejecting central government interference that stifles local initiatives. However, conditions may necessitate this coordination. An issue that could bring formerly separate agencies together focused on a national-and worldwide-concern is adult illiteracy. 3) A clear distinction exists between Western and Eastern political philosophy regarding the purpose of the folk school. In the GDR, education aims to develop workers to meet state needs, while in the Western European countries education is more for individual development, the assumption being that the person will fulfill both himself and the needs of the state through productive citizenship and employment. It appears that these two philosophies may, by necessity of economics, population, and personal need, overlap in the near future, even more than they are now doing. 4) Nations are recognizing the necessity for local and state laws mandating support for adult continuing education. Helping to motivate creation of these laws are illiteracy among native and immigrant populations, the needs of disabled adults and older persons who retire at earlier ages, the technical needs of the society and collaborative efforts among agencies, such as trade unions and commercial establishments, and the need to avoid duplication of and competition for services. 5) The administration and staffing of the folk school consists of a relatively few well-trained full-time teachers of adults supplemented by many part-time specialists. I found inadequate attention being given to in-service staff development, to salary and program budgets, or to better training and utilization of volunteers. page 9 / Wendel Conclusion The European folk high school continues to serve a significant population and perform a valuable function. As this article suggests, the future of the folk school in its historical form is somewhat uncertain. Its technical programs may be acquired by private commercial firms, as has happened in America, and general education offerings absorbed by the universities. Adult folk high schools will continue in a more limited and specialized form offering personal growth opportunities for small groups of adults wanting either residential or short-term evening learning opportunities held in retreat centers, urban buildings, or as part of a travel experience to distant places. Increased educational offerings by industry, commercial agencies, and universities appears definite, thus increasing the competition for students and resources. The current wave of immigrants into and out of the two Germanys necessitates renewed educational efforts by central and local agencies to provide literacy training and skill development. Renewed and increased demand for folk school offerings is predicted as Europe experiences the movement of people across more open borders. Not only is the need for technical skills paramount among these newly arrived immigrants, but entire families will desire citizenship orientation, language study, and personal development courses. Undoubtedly, the combined efforts of public and private agencies are required to assist with this growing need for literacy and skills. Central to this challenge is the European folk high school being called upon once again to deliver its humanistic curriculum as it did in the l9th century. References Andresen, A. (1981). (Ed.). The Danish folk high school today. International Committee of the Danish Folk High School Association in Copenhagen. Kubly, B. (1983). The German volkschochschule: An overview. Lifelong Learning: The Adult Years. AAACE: Washington, DC. Kulich, J. (1984). N.F.S. Grundtvig folk high school ideas and the Challenge of our times. Lifelong Learning: The Adult Years. AAACE: Washington, DC. Pfeil, A (1984). The volkshochschule at a glance. Pamphlet published by the Center of the German Adult Education Association, Frankfurt. Rordam, T. (1980). The Danish folk high school. (2nd ed.). Copenhagen: Danske Selskab. page 10 / Wendel Interviews Conducted during the summers of 1984 and 1987 Doerry, Dr. Gerd, Professor; Dr. Gunter Buchner; Dr. Wolfgang Beer. Institute of Education, Adult Education Department, Free University, West Berlin. Himmelstrup, Per. Secretary General. Danish Institute to Further Cultural Information and Exchange, Copenhagen. Mepham, Roy, Principal. Cologne Volkshochuschule, West Germany. Mohle, Professor Dr. Horst, Chair, Dept of Pedogogies, Karl Marx University, Leipzig, East Germany. Pfeil, Dr. Alfred. Frankfurt Volkshochuschkle, Frankfurt, West Germany. Poulsen, Dr. Sten, Researcher, Danish Institute of Education, Copenhagen. Verdo, J., Commrade and Principal. Leipzig Volk School, Leipzig, East Germany. (Interview included two head teachers, two deputies from the Communist party, a math teacher and two English as a Second Language teachers). _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 A DESCRIPTIVE APPRAISAL OF FUNCTIONAL LITERACY IN NIGERIA by Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi University of Maiduguri - Nigeria Abstract This article focuses on functional literacy, which is one of the four adult education programmes in Nigeria. This article also highlights the major problems affecting the programmes in Nigeria. Finally, the authors offer some recommendations that can assist the planners in achieving effective functional literacy in Nigeria. page 11 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi Introduction The system of education in Nigeria is spelled out in a document, known as the "National Policy on Education," which was first published in 1977 and revised in 1981. Before 1977, the country was operating different kinds of educational systems. Thus, the new educational policy is geared towards correcting the contradictions, ambiguities, and lack of uniformity in the different states in the Federation. The policy, however, places greater emphasis on the formal education system, herein referred to as schooling. As a consequence, the policy is popularly known as the "6-3-3-4 system", which is a reflection of the organization of the formal school system. The formal school system comprises six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary education, three years of senior secondary education, and four years of higher education. In spite of the restructuring of the country's educational system, resulting in a great increase in the number of formal schools, Akintayo (1986) and Fajonyomi (1988) observed that the existing schools are inadequate to meet the demand for schooling by Nigerians. Furthermore, many Nigerians have been forced out of schools because of the rigidity of the learning programmes of the formal school system, which rarely gives room for learners to combine work with schooling. In realisation of this problem, the National Policy on Education has acknowledged the collective responsibility of formal and adult education in meeting the educational yearnings of Nigerians. Adult education in Nigeria tends to complement and/or supplement formal education. The cost effectiveness of adult education programmes in Nigeria, when compared with corresponding formal school programmes, have been attested to by Okedana (1981) and Akintayo (1986). Literacy education has minimum learning requirements for adults in the society and it is considered an alternative to primary education. Remedial education or extramural classes, organised by both private agencies and the University's Department of Adult Education, prepare students for external examinations such as a General Certificate in Education (GCE 0/L or A/L), ordinary or advanced level, and senior secondary school examinations. Furthermore, the continuing education institutes prepare literate adults in the country for professional courses such as accountancy, personnel management, and secretarial studies. In addition, some departments of adult education provide correspondence education for the benefit of workers who wish to obtain University degrees but cannot afford to leave their jobs for residential courses offered under the auspices of distance learning programmes. page 12 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi The Status of Adult Literacy Education The government and the people of Nigeria are convinced now more than ever before that any amount invested in adult education, especially in functional literacy education, is an appropriate investment in human resources that will lead to national development (Igbalajobi, 1988). Adult education began in Nigeria under the Mass Education Programme introduced by the British Colonial Government. The main objective of the programme was to reduce the level of illiteracy among Nigerians so that the people would understand the roles of the British Government (Omolewa, 1986). The British Government effort was complemented by the sponsorship of literacy workers by nongovernmental organisations, notably community groups, missionaries, voluntary organisations, and employers of workers. This, according to Omolewa (1988), was the background for the establishment of several literacy projects and evening classes which spread throughout Nigeria. Literacy education can be divided into functional literacy and traditional literacy classes. Traditional literacy, which involves the ability to read and write, is now de-emphasized in the country in favour of functional literacy. Functional adult literacy classes are tied to individual professions and sometimes referred to as competency-based adult education programmes. The functional adult education programme is becoming increasingly important in Nigeria. Since the aim of functional adult education is to improve competence, farmers, traders, and contractors have enrolled in such classes. Typically one hour daily is devoted to learning and two hours daily are devoted to demonstrations. Some noteworthy effects of the functional programmes are: 1) Farmers have formed cooperative groups and have contributed to an increased food supply in many communities. 2) Contractors with added knowledge from the programmes have been able to construct quality roads, bridges, schools, post offices, and market stalls, all serving to open the rural areas to development. 3) Women, who are mainly traders, are now able to keep accounts of their sales and have also contributed to an increased profit margin. Adult education in Nigeria has also been used as tool for political awareness and social mobilization. As a result of the adult education programmes in Nigeria, people are now aware of the role of the government in their community and some have been selected to represent their areas in the running of the local administration. There is no doubt that adult education has increased the participation of adults in the administration of their respective communities. It is also important to add that the level of illiteracy has been reduced considerably from about 80% in 1959 to about 40 - 60% in 1986 (Ojo, 1986). Adult education has also opened most of the rural areas in Nigeria to development. The Basic Projects such as water, electricity, transportation, and postal facilities are now being initiated by adult learners, having identified the needs of their communities through well organised discussion classes. page 13 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi It is also important to mention the role of higher institutions in functional adult education programmes in Nigeria. The Universities of Ibadan, Lagos, Ife, Zaria, and Maiduguri are doing a lot by way of training the much-needed personnel throughout Nigeria. For example, the authors of this paper are Lecturers in the Department of Adult Education and Extension Services of the University of Maiduguri. Apart from training personnel for Adult Education and Extension Services, the Department, on a regular basis, organises workshops and seminars for the instructors of adult education programmes throughout the country. In addition, the University Authority, in collaboration with the Department, is developing a model village known as the "Dalori Project" using the principles of functional adult education. Professor Nur Alkali, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Maiduguri, initiated the Dalori Project as a part of the contribution of the University to the locality. The principle behind the project is that the people in the settlement, the University, and the government will cooperate to provide amenities such as electricity, water supply, good roads, markets, postal agencies, and all others that are basic in modern settlements. It is envisioned that the project will check rural migration and that such model towns will be developed in many communities in Nigeria as a process of developing the rural areas. The Dalori Project is progressing gradually. The University is also encouraging the staff of the Department to write books and design curricula for instruction in adult education classes that can be used in all other states of the Federation. There is no doubt that if the authorities of other Nigerian universities can take a cue from the activities of the University of Maiduguri, this will go a long way in improving the status of functional adult education throughout Nigeria. Problems and Issues Adult education plays a very important role in transforming rural areas in Nigeria to a more habitable environment, but there are problems and issues that require immediate attention and solution before this noble objective can be fully achieved. Inadequate provision of facilities for the programmes are a major impediment in most areas of Nigeria. There is a shortage of tables, chairs, and classrooms. Sometimes classes are held under trees or in classrooms that are meant for small children. Similarly, there is a problem with a lack of adequate educational materials. For example, there are no standard textbooks for adults. To facilitate learning, some of the materials could have been written in Nigerian indigenous languages. Teaching aids are totally absent in most of the adult classes. Teaching aids should be used frequently to allow adult learners to know the relationship between what is learned and their immediate environment. The teaching should also include practical demonstrations of ideas and concepts and should be related to everyday life. For example, the simple counting of 1-10 should be related to the process of buying and selling. This would be another form of reinforcement and it would allow the students to see the significance of such education as a part of their daily survival. page 14 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi To facilitate successful learning, there is a need for qualified and competent instructors. At the moment in Nigeria there is a serious problem of inadequate numbers of qualified and experienced teachers in functional adult education. Most of the instructors are not trained for the job. They are mostly volunteers who opted to teach adults. Although some instructors have a teacher education background, most were trained in primary education, not in adult education. A recent study on adult education and teacher quality revealed that only one qualified teacher is available for every ten teachers sampled (Dada, 1987). There is an urgent need to improve the quality of the teachers if adults are to benefit from the programmes. Similarly, most of the instructors were appointed on a part-time basis, and expected to teach either twice or three times a week. The treatment given to the instructors is not encouraging, as sometimes they are not paid for a period of three months. Therefore, many instructors show a negative attitude through irregular attendance and little concern for the students. The overall morale of the instructors tends to be very low. Adult education classes are held all over Nigeria. Yet, we do not have a national research, monitoring, and evaluation unit to track the activities of the local, state, and federal officers who are expected to carry the message to the grassroots. There is need to conduct constant research on the programmes to enable the government to recognise areas that require immediate attention and improvement. Research could also be conducted to find out the attitudes of people toward the programmes and to suggest measures and ideas that could improve the programmes and better meet the needs of diverse groups of learners. There is a need for national evaluation based on empirical studies that evaluate the totality of the programmes. It is important to mention that the federal government of Nigeria is spending a lot of money on adult education programmes. The issue of finance arises as a result of misdirected spending as well as misappropriation of the funds meant for the programmes. Recently, it was alleged that an agency responsible for the organisation of adult education in a state of the Federation diverted the money meant for adult education to other areas of need. Also, the present purchasing power of the Naira in relation to other foreign currency is affecting the financial position of adult education in Nigeria. The allocation to adult education by both the federal and the state government have dropped by about 40% in the last five years. Some states of the Federation, in a study conducted recently on problems of adult education in Nigeria, indicated that the problems of finance are a major obstacle on the road to success. The report further noted that basic materials such as chalk and exercise books cannot be bought for the learners because money is not available. There are reports of poor payment to the instructors, also a result of poor financial management (Atolagbe, 1988). page 15 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi The dropout rate in adult education programmes in Nigeria is very high. A recent study by Adeola (1987) on the causes of dropout in adult education programmes shows that between 30 - 40% of the learners leave before the end of the course. The dropout rate among the females is higher than the males, about 45%. The reasons for dropout include lack of motivation on the part of the teachers and lack of interest on the part of the students. Some of the adult learners leave because of financial problems arising from their inability to buy basic materials for the classes. Most of the men that left the classes left because the classes have no relationship to what they do daily. Some of them leave during the planting and harvesting periods to devote such time to their crops on the farm. Some of the states are now worried about the rate of attrition in the adult education programmes, especially in adult literacy classes. Organisers of the programme are now trying to substitute functional adult literacy for the traditional form to encourage adult learners to remain in the classes. For example, in a class of twenty-five adult learners, only about ten can be regarded as regular students. Efforts are now on to control the problem by making the classes interesting and to supply what the learners need to make them remain in the programmes. Recommendations The problems and issues discussed earlier call for recommendations which if adopted could lead to the improvement of the status of adult education in Nigeria. It is erroneously believed that adult literacy education does not necessarily need additional resources, especially capital items, other than those meant for formal education. This conception might have been responsible for insufficient funds being allocated to adult education. Thus, the various governments in the country should be advised to allocate at least ten percent (10%) of the education budget to adult education, contrary to the present practice of less than one percent (1%) (Fajonyomi, 1988). With adequate funds the organisers will be able to acquire relevant materials--books, primers, chairs, tables, and so on--for adult learners' use. Also qualified instructors and other workers could be hired with sufficient funds. Furthermore, it would be possible to train the less qualified instructors through workshops, seminars, and in-service programmes. For the purpose of effective coordination of the various adult education programmes run by the different agencies--universities, government parastatals, private, and religious organisations--bodies such as the National Commission, State Agencies, and a Local Government Committee for Adult and Nonformal Education should be established. Such bodies should be headed by adult education experts. These experts will be able to define the course of action regarding adult education. At the same time, a national network for adult education activities should be set up in the country which will be in a better position to determine the number of learners that have benefitted from adult education throughout the country. page 16 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi To reduce high dropout rates among adult learners, efforts should be made to identify major factors responsible for the high dropout rate. Such efforts will reduce the cost of retraining the dropouts (Fajonyomi, 1988). Also, policymakers should rejuvenate their efforts in organising public enlightment campaigns on the importance of adult and literacy education. The campaigns should be directed at the nonparticipating groups. It has been observed that the advice of the nonparticipants influences the decision of the participating group to persist or to quit. In addition, the condition of the adult education centres should be improved, especially in the rural areas, and the programmes should be held at convenient times for the learners. The employers of workers should be advised to recognise certificates obtained from adult education programmes, especially those that are equivalent to a formal school programme. Such decisions will encourage prospective learners to enroll and persist in the adult education programmes. This is important to adult education planners and policymakers who should ensure that the various adult education programmes are comparable to formal school programmes. Developed countries of the world like the U.S.A. or Britain who have been involved in adult education for a long time can also assist the programmes in Nigeria. For example, the Kellogg programmes in the United States of America can give a lead in this direction. The assistance can be in the form of regular supplies of relevant materials on adult education to agencies in developing countries. Assistance may also be in the form of sponsoring seminars, workshops, and visits to centres of adult education in other parts of the world. Such assistance will provide opportunities for researchers and practitioners in adult education to share ideas and experiences. Conclusion The authors of this article have made an attempt to appraise the situation and the state of adult education programmes in Nigeria. It is clear that the programmes are gaining remarkable ground in Nigeria. The authors are convinced that as a result of the activities of adult education programmes in Nigeria, most rural areas will be exposed to development and will actually experience a positive change. However, adult education programmes in Nigeria must be taken by the government as a serious activity, or else the federal government of Nigeria's slogan of education for all by the year 2000 may not be realised after all. page 17 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi References Adeola, A. O. (1987). Causes of drop-out in adult education programme in Nigeria, M. ED. Unpublished, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Akintayo, M. O. (1986). Comparative efficiency of workers education and students education at the University of Lagos Nigeria, Ph.D. Thesis unpublished, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Atolagbe, E. A. (1988). Primary adult education in Nigeria (in press). Dada, F. A. (1987). A survey of adult literary classes in Nigeria, M. Ed. Unpublished, University of 'Benin, Nigeria. Fajonyomi, A. A. (1988a). Problems and issues of literacy education in Nigeria, Literacy Voices, 1(1), 43-48. Fajonyomi, A. A. (1988b). Socio-economic determinants of adult literacy performance in basic education classes in Borno State of Nigeria, Ph.D. Thesis unpublished, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Igbalajobi, M. (1988). "Adult education and rural development." A paper presented at a Seminar for Social Mobilization Officers, Akura, Nigeria. Ojo, C. O. (1986). "Adult education and level of literacy classes in Nigeria." A paper presented at a Seminar for Adult Education Instructors, Ado Eketi, Nigeria. Okedana, J. T. (1981). Cost-effectiveness of formal and nonformal education: A case study. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Omolewa, M. (1981). Adult education practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: Exams Brothers Ltd. Omolewa, M. (1988). "The state and adult education: The Nigerian experience." A paper presented at the First International Conference on History of Education, the Technical University, Anchem. page 18 / Igbalajobi and Fajonyomi _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 B O O K R E V I E W INTENTIONAL CHANGES by Allen Tough Reviewed by David Price University of Missouri - Columbia In 1971 Allen Tough published THE ADULT'S LEARNING PROJECTS: A FRESH APPROACH TO THEORY AND PRACTICE IN ADULT LEARNING (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1971). That publication touched off a flurry of reactions, both positive and negative, as well as a considerable body of spin-off research throughout the professional adult education community (Sheckley, 1985). Reactions and references to that work continue regularly to appear in the current literature of adult education. Well it should; how can anyone report adult education participation rates, for example, without reference to Tough's observation that the vast majority of adults routinely engage in purposeful and systematic learning projects, that they do so with a remarkable degree of efficacy, and that such learning takes place largely outside of organized providership (Tough, 1971). Few educators would have questioned an assertion that adults routinely learn from their environments and oftentimes engage purposefully in learning episodes to satisfy curiosities or to solve problems emerging in the course of their personal, family, community, or occupational lives. But such learning has been regarded as too casual and insignificant to merit recognition and attention from professional adult education. Even lifelong learning enthusiasts who have advocated the deinstitutionalization of education and the integration of learning and life seemed to have underestimated the extent to which adults effectively integrate major learning efforts into their lives. Through his research, Tough has made adult educators humbly wake up to the fact that their enterprise represents only a small portion of the total range of adult learning practices, and perhaps more importantly, he has made educators aware of the scientific gains to be made through exploration of adults' natural learning processes. It is again these natural processes to which Allen Tough turns his attention in his 1982 publication, INTENTIONAL CHANGES (Follet Publishing Company, Chicago, Ill.). This time Tough broadens the focus to include the total range of changes adults intentionally make, regardless of whether the changes are accomplished through a series of learning episodes, as was his subject in THE ADULT'S LEARNING PROJECTS, or in some other way. Two characteristics serve to define intentional changes, differentiating them from other changes, for inclusion in Tough's study. The first characteristic is choice-to be included a particular change must have been freely chosen by the person and not coerced in any way. An occupational change, for example, would be included if a subject chose to leave one occupation for another; but not included if one was forced to find new employment when prior employment was terminated. Similarly, a decision to become a parent would be included if chosen; not included if the result of unplanned pregnancy. A second definitive characteristic of intentional change was striving for action. To have intended to change alone was not enough; a subject must have actually taken steps toward achievement of the desired change. With "intentional change" thus defined, Tough used an intensive interview technique and trained interviewers to study the single most important or largest intentional change in a two-year period of each of 150 subjects chosen at random in selected cities in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Specific areas of inquiry were the types of intentional changes made by the subjects; the size and importance of these changes to self and others; and the change paths--strategies and resources--subjects used to select, plan, and implement their intentional changes. page 19 / Price The first four chapters of INTENTIONAL CHANGES are devoted to analysis and interpretation of the research data, integrating at relevant points comparisons to the findings of other researchers as well as Tough's own thoughtful commentaries. Tough is particularly thorough and explicit in interpreting even subtle details of the intensive interviews conducted in the course of his study. The balance of the book (four additional chapters and an extensive appendix) is devoted to what Tough sees as the most significant implications of his and related studies. INTENTIONAL CHANGES is written entirely in the first person through which style Tough speaks to the reader in a candid, personable manner, occasionally interjecting his own personal experiences as they relate to the central topic of self-directed change. At points, he coaxes readers to pause and reflect on their own change experiences to gain perspective and greater appreciation of the intentional change processes of others. Tough's discourse smoothly alternates between objective quantitative analysis of research data and affective contemplation. He slips comfortably from social scientist, explaining complex relationships demonstrated in data analysis, to special interest advocate, advising a reorientation to the helping professions and demanding shifts in academic practices. "Surely the appropriate time has arrived," he charges, "for a unified science of intentional human change" (p. 23). It is important to note that Tough's propensity for mingling highly subjective, qualitative commentary with objective quantitative analysis is managed in such a way as not to compromise the scientific integrity of the study. The style, unconventional perhaps, is highly readable; and, to this reader at least, compelling. As previously indicated, Tough's research design employed an intensive interview technique, trained interviewers, and 150 randomly selected subjects in nine locations in three countries. Further, there were 180 additional interviews conducted by graduate students as course projects, which, although not included in the quantitative data for the study, "contributed significantly to the ideas for the book" (p. 15). Several serious threats to internal and external validity arise from procedural problems in Tough's research design and should be noted here. First, the size of the nine samples as well as the selection procedures represent serious weaknesses. Although the research team sought to increase representativeness in the total sample by pulling small samples in three locations--urban, rural, and semi-rural--in each of three countries, the size of samples in each strata (unreported) could not have been of adequate size to generalize to the populations from which they were drawn. Secondly, there was little consistency in the sampling procedure among the nine strata--"most of the interviewees were selected at random from municipal voters' or assessment lists or from the telephone book. Some were selected by knocking on doors in various neighborhoods" (p. 15). Further, these populations mentioned as sources of samples for most of the interviews are far less than ideal since only small percentages of the adult populations of most communities appear on voter registration, assessment, and telephone listings. Although Tough does not specifically account for these sampling problems, to his credit he does seem to recognize a general inferential weakness and reconciles it as follows: page 20 / Price "Because of inevitable sampling errors and response errors, we cannot be certain whether similar results will be found in large-scale studies in other locations in the future. No doubt the numbers will change somewhat as future researchers survey other nations and other parts of the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. I am confident, however, that the general picture will prove to be reasonably accurate for many populations, even though the particular figures will vary a little. As the interview data arrived in my mail from a great diversity of interviewers in widely scattered regions, I was struck by the remarkable consistency in the basic patterns from one sample to another" (p. 16). Aside from threats to the external validity of Tough's research owing to sampling procedures, some questions of internal validity arise due to the interview methodology. In conducting the intensive interview, Tough advises that "it is essential that interviews be sufficiently leisurely, with plenty of probing and dialogue" (p. 163). In addition to the interview schedule, he provided interviewers with a list of supplementary, and optional, questions and comments for use in "studying difficulties, task details, and additional needs" (p. 172). This interview procedure, while enabling a deep understanding of the dynamics of one's intentional change, may become highly subjective, as well as render difficulties in maintaining consistency among interviews. Further, it is apparent that although all interviewers were trained in the technique by Tough, such training consisted of a graduate course which interviewers had taken at different times over a four-year period. This lends some further question of consistency across interviews. There were no tests of inter-rater reliability conducted to control for possible problems in this regard. Although the apparent problems with Tough's research methods are many when considered against accepted standards of formal descriptive research design, it is important that readers, and reviewers, consider Tough's study for what it is, and for what is intended by it. "This book," writes Tough, "both confirms (because the findings exhibit a similar pattern) and enlarges the research on the adult's learning projects (Tough, THE ADULT'S LEARNING PROJECTS, 1971).... It demonstrates that men and women are remarkably successful at choosing, planning, and implementing intentional changes, with most help being obtained from friends and family rather than from books or professionals" (pp. 14-15). And further, "Intentional Changes is written for professionals, policy makers, and the academic community in several fields concerned with intentional changes.... The book will not only give such readers a better understanding of a central phenomenon in their fields, but will also suggest several specific implications for improved practice and policy and for future research" (p. 14). J. Roby Kidd is quoted in the foreword, "Allen has found a question worth probing and a means of better understanding and reporting on human behavior. He has begun to explore in a different dimension.... He brings back news, and there will be more to come from fellow explorers" (p. 11). INTENTIONAL CHANGES should not be viewed as a formal descriptive research project in the behavioral science tradition, but rather, as Kidd suggests, an exploration into a little-understood facet of human behavior through qualitative naturalistic inquiry. The professional literature has in recent years emphasized a need for grounded theory, as first discussed by Glaser and Strauss (in Merriam, 1989), as well as other qualitative approaches to research in adult education (Brookfield, 1983; Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988; Usher and Bryant, 1989). According to advocates, these approaches focus attention on the development of theory rather than its testing, and are needed to build and strengthen theoretical foundations on which to base future empirical studies. Tough's work exemplifies just such a foundation. page 21 / Price Several adult development theorists, Gould, Sheehy, Neugarten, and others, have suggested age-related life stages which explain motivations for change. Others, such as Aslanian, have suggested that life events, not age-related stages, "trigger" adult motivations to change (Chickering, 1975; Merriam, 1984). Tough's INTENTIONAL CHANGES, unfortunately, sheds precious little light on the debate. Although why adults choose to change was not a part of Tough's study ("Penetrating insights into why adults choose to change will require much further study"), he does point out that "much can be inferred from their (the interviewees) choices" (p. 15). He does not, however, make any such inferences himself. Although Tough does indicate that his study found most intentional changes reported "were not particularly related to the person's age or stage in life" (p. 35), this is the extent of his consideration of the adult life cycle and motivations for change. Some further analysis and discussion by Tough would have been useful on this point. In summation, there are three central themes implied by Allen Tough's INTENTIONAL CHANGES that to this reviewer are particularly germane to adult education practice. First is the resounding theme of cleavage between the professional field of adult education, as well as other helping professions, and the actual practice of human learning and change. Clearly, while adult education and other helping professionals strive to provide a vast array of opportunities to enable and facilitate adult learning and change, these resources contribute less than five percent to the selection, plan, and implementation of changes adults intentionally make, whereas fully seventy percent of the credit for such change- tasks go to the changing person himself or herself. Nonprofessional friends, neighbors, and family members of the changer contribute approximately twenty percent to the person's change path. A surprisingly small three-percent credit for change contribution is made by non human resources such as books, television, and other media. These findings point to the central importance of the person's natural learning and change processes in adult development. Adult education professionals need to determine least-obtrusive ways and methods to "fit in" to these natural human processes--supporting and strengthening them--rather than attempting to mold adults to learning and change strategies devised by professionals apart from the individual. Such approaches were classified by Brookfield (1983) as adult education "in" the community and differentiated from approaches "for," and "of" the community, and have recently been discussed at length by Galbraith and Price (in press) and by Price (in press). A second and related central theme of Tough's work is what he calls an "optimum range of control" (p. 106) which professionals need to seek in their work with adults. Devoting a full chapter to this topic, Tough points out a propensity for over-control by educators in higher and adult education, other service providers, and in public policy. He traces some of the causes of over-control and discusses some possible remedies. A third theme of INTENTIONAL CHANGES that is of particular benefit to adult educators is the research methodology employed in the study. Tough's research demonstrates that important gains in educational and behavioral science can be made through the use of intensive, probing interviews and other qualitative naturalistic methods. INTENTIONAL CHANGES further demonstrates-in that Tough employed extensive statistical analysis of case study field notes-the fruitfulness of complementing qualitatively generated data with quantitative analysis, an approach increasingly recommended in the adult education research literature (Brookfield, 1983; Merriam, 1988). Jerrold Apps (in Deshler and Hagan, 1989) has suggested that adult education research is caught up in positivist empirism, the dominant scientific paradigm of schools of education, and that adult educators need to be more open to naturalistic approaches. In our zeal to gain scientific legitimacy through formal experimental, quasi-experimental, and quantitative descriptive studies we have overlooked the need for and importance of grounded theory. Tough's findings make a substantial contribution to a much-needed knowledge base in the behavioral sciences. Further qualitative inquiry of this kind into adult learning behavior is needed to broaden and strengthen this foundation if adult education is to continue to mature as a field of professional practice and study. page 22 / Price References Brookfield, S. (1983). Adult learners, adult education and the community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Chickering, A. (1975). Adult development--implications for higher education. In C. Edward Calvert (Compiler), Conference Proceedings: Designing Diversity '75, 2nd National Conference On Open Learning and Nontraditional Study, June 17-19, 1975. Lincoln, NB: University of Mid-America, p. 203-219. Deshler, D. & Hagan, N. (1989). Adult education research: Issues and directions. In S. Merriam & P. Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Galbraith, M. W. & Price, D. W. (in press). Community adult education. In M. W. Galbraith & P. A. Sundet (Eds.), Education in the rural American community: A lifelong process. Melbourne, FL: Krieger. Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills: Sage. Merriam, S. (1988). Case study research in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. (1984). Adult development: Implications for adult education. Columbus, OH: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education (Information series no. 282). Price, D. W. (in press). Cooperative extension as community education developer. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Education through community organizations. New directions in adult and continuing education, No. 48. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sheckley, B. G. (1985). Self-directed learning among adults enrolled in a community college. Community College Review. Tough, A. (1971). The adult's learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Tough, A. (1982). Intentional changes: A fresh approach to helping people change. Chicago: Follet Publishing Company. page 23 / Price _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 F R O M T H E E D I T O R S' D E S K ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING PUTS BYTE INTO ACADEMIC PUBLISHING by Jane M. Hugo Syracuse University Introduction Electronic publishing, the use of computers and electronic networks like BITNET for the production and distribution of ideas, puts publishing and distribution in the hands of more people than ever before. Some would say it is another step in the "democratization" of mass communications. However, it is also reviving old issues among scholars. Who controls publishing? Who oversees quality control? What is the role of electronic publishing in the tenure/promotion process? In addition, new questions and new possibilities come to mind in light of electronic publishing. How will researchers retrieve or trace information distributed in an electronic format? Will readers and writers of scholarly articles become collaborators in the writing process as they read and react to electronic articles? Who will bear the cost of supporting equitable access to electronic networks and thus electronic publications? Questions like these have a direct bearing on all those who manage, read, or write for journals like NEW HORIZONS. What follows is a distillation of ideas raised at a conference held at Syracuse University in the Spring of 1989--"The Impact of Desktop Publishing on University Life," March 13-14, 1989--and explored in articles related to the conference and to scholarly communication (Burstyn, 1989; DeLoughry, 1989; Rogers, 1989). page 24 / Hugo Electronic Journals and University Life "I think desktop publishing, in conjunction with electronic networks, is fashioning a communications revolution that will have a dramatic impact on the culture of the university," wrote Joan Burstyn, a member of the School of Education faculty at Syracuse University and an organizer of the conference (Burstyn, 1989). The presenters and participants in the conference agreed, although they did not all agree on what the impact would be. Desktop publishing, the process of using computers and printers to produce quality printed materials, has already given individual academics, departments, and colleges the tools to produce visually attractive print materials at a cost below that of conventional publishers, at a faster rate, and for audiences of any size. The last ability means scholars can produce more materials for specialty audiences than was possible before desktop publishing or on-line publishing. Representatives of academic presses were quick to remind conference participants that producing copy is really only a part of publishing. Established academic presses and journals provide expertise in design, marketing, advertising, distribution, quality control, and credibility that cannot be sustained by the average academician. Self-printed publications and on-line publications cannot offer the guaranteed audiences that conventional publishers offer (DeLoughry, 1989). On the other hand, Rogers and Hurt (1989) contend that scholarly journals are "obsolete as the primary vehicle for scholarly communication;" scholars are already creating important new knowledge outside the scholarly-journal process. Discussion at the conference highlighted a tension that exists between the speed and ease of desktop publishing and the needs within the academic community to trace ideas and to retrieve them through such things as library holdings, back issues of journals, or citations. Conference participants were asked to think about the ephemeral nature of desktop or electronic publishing--the "bibliographic morass" and "ghost citations" it creates--and what might need to be done to set up archives and bibliographic guidelines for such material. The Syracuse conference participants discussed the fact that publishers ratify a scholar's "tenurability." Desktop publishing and electronic journals change or challenge the "gatekeeping" function within academia served by publishing according to the "status hierarchy of publication outlets." Tenure committees may have to assess a scholar's publication record by some other criteria than those of the established journal. By the same token, the academic community may come to expect greater productivity from scholars if electronic publishing replaces the scholarly-journal process. page 25 / Hugo Most speakers at the conference believed that some sort of peer review process would remain in place, acting as a "signpost of credibility." The role of editors and editorial boards may shift, however, from "filter" to "verifier" or "enabler." According to Kenneth C. Green, Associate Director of the Higher Education Research Institute at the University of California at Los Angeles, the blind review and publication of text in electronic form would mark "a transformation of peer review from a static to a dynamic activity, with more opportunity and some risk for those engaging in it, and with a better outcome" (DeLoughry, 1989, p. A16). Electronic distribution provides broader interaction with readers and makes for an expanding network of colleagues. Joan Burstyn pointed out that peer review, editing, and revision in on-line publishing could take place as a paper is written and read, thus making collaborative writing another issue for promotion and tenure committees as well as for editors. Equity and Access Desktop and electronic publishing technology is now available, functioning, and here to stay. The Syracuse conference participants considered many questions of equity and access over their two days together. Several questions were raised. Will there be equality between an article published traditionally and electronically? While we can accelerate peer review, can we accelerate the credibility of on-line publishing? With money as a critical factor in areas of equity and access, who will pay? The university? The individual? Will access to electronic journals or electronic libraries only be available to those who can afford mainframe services (e.g., universities, departments, scholars, etc.)? If electronic material is always accessible, how can it be protected? What is "fair use" in electronic publishing? Will we need "image copyright" as well as "written copyright?" In general, technology will always be ahead of the users. However, institutions affect the use of technology; they can legitimize and enhance the use of technology. Conference participants discussed the importance of institutions providing training to those who wish to write for or read on-line publications. Universities could work to lower costs and build future systems designed for naive users. Universities could also take the "hassle" out of network access and make it pervasive. Institutions could further work to enhance the credibility of electronic publishing by adjusting promotion and tenure practices and providing prospective authors with "templates, and printed examples" illustrative of quality on-line publishing. Conclusion In their article on scholarship in the next century, Rogers and Hurt (1989) argued convincingly for the establishment of an electronic, scholarly, communication network that would link colleges and universities nationwide. Such a 21st century network would address many of the issues raised at the Syracuse conference on desktop publishing in academia: the use of electronic networks to encourage greater interaction between authors and readers, more equitable tenure and promotion procedures, systematic logging and tracking of electronic publications, new peer review processes, and collaborative financing for the mutual benefit of institutions, scholars, and students. page 26 / Hugo NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, its readers, and its authors currently face many of the concerns raised at the conference. With other on-line journals, we provide experience to the field of adult education in the use of network publishing and interactive readership. We also provide the impetus for asking anew questions of control, quality, and equity in the creation and distribution of knowledge. Innovations like NEW HORIZONS and the network discussed in the previous paragraph require much more than the technological ability to bring them into existence. The academic community must begin to recognize the revolutionary aspects of electronic publishing and work to develop the values, policies, and practices that can turn this technological sword into a plowshare. References Burstyn, J. (1989). Desktop publishing will affect university life. The Syracuse Record, March 6, 1989, p. 6. DeLoughry, T. (1989). Scholarly journals in electronic form seen as means to speed pace of publication and promote dialogue. The Chronicle of Higher Education, March 22, 1989, p. A11. Rogers, S. and Hurt, C. (1989). How scholarly communication should work in the 21st century. The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 18, 1989, p. A56. _________________________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 4, Number 9/90, Spring/Summer 1990 C A L L F O R M A N U S C R I P T S in Community Adult Education >From the Editors Linda Newell David Price Syracuse University University of Columbia-Missouri NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, a refereed academic journal, solicits manuscripts for its Fall/Winter 1991 special issue. The editors seek submissions of original research, conceptual analyses, case studies, and book reviews relating to community- based adult education efforts. Examples of appropriate submissions include articles that convey concepts, methods, and approaches in community development and local social action, community health education, participatory community economic development, community-based literacy work, community leadership development, and community learning. Faculty, graduate students, practitioners, and others concerned with adult education in the community context are welcome to submit articles. All submissions to NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION are double-blind reviewed by four editorial board members. Submissions must be authors' original work and not previously published. For consideration, manuscripts should be submitted to the editors on or before November 15, 1990. MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION: There are no length requirements, but authors should recognize that reviewers will evaluate articles to see that the subject and substance warrants the length. Submitted articles should include the title of the manuscript, full names, institutional affiliations, and positions of the authors. Manuscripts should conform to the rules governing manuscript style and references outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), Third Edition. Text and references normally underscored should instead be typed in upper case (all caps). Authors should use written text explanations of concepts and data rather than diagrams or graphics; simple tabular data, when necessary to article content, may be included. FORM OF SUBMISSION: NEW HORIZONS accepts manuscripts in the following forms: 1) Electronic mail transmitted via BITNET to the NEW HORIZONS electronic address: HORIZONS@SUVM.BITNET. 2) Electronic copies stored in ASCII, the universal computer language, and mailed on floppy disk to NEW HORIZONS, 310 Lyman Hall, 108 College Place, Syracuse, N.Y. 13244-1270 (Address as of 10/90). 3) Printed copies mailed to NEW HORIZONS, 310 Lyman Hall, 108 College Place, Syracuse, N.Y.13244-1270. Authors who submit printed manuscripts that are ultimately accepted for publication will provide, if possible, their manuscripts in electronic form. ABOUT THE JOURNAL: NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, founded in 1987, is a refereed journal published by the Syracuse University Kellogg Project. It is electronically transmitted to subscribers' personal computers via mainframe computers. The journal is managed by graduate student editors in cooperation with an international editorial board also comprised of graduate students. There is no cost for subscription to or back issues of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION. Issues are sent free of charge to all subscribers to the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), an international electronic network of adult educators. Journal subscription and membership in AEDNET is made by request via electronic mail to AEDNET@SUVM.BITNET. Paper copies of the journal may be obtained by sending a written request to the journal office at 310 Lyman Hall, 108 College Place, Syracuse, N.Y. 13244-1270. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is indexed and abstracted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------