From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:43:30 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:14:32 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL5N2 (1/1) Archive HORIZONS, file vol5n2. Part 1/1, total size 81013 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ ********************************************************** ********************************************************** ******************** ********************** ************* ************* ******* ******** **** ***** *** *** ** ** * NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION * * * ********************************************************** Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 1991 ********************************************************** CURRENT EDITORS Daniel V. Eastmond............Syracuse University Charles Awasu.................Syracuse University COPY EDITOR Patricia Soper................Syracuse University TRANSITION EDITORS Joan Durant...................Syracuse University Linda Newell..................Syracuse University EDITORIAL BOARD Judith Gwinn Adrian...........University of Wisconsin Sue Collard...................University of British Columbia Wayne Hartschuh...............Arizona State University Christine Olgren..............University of Wisconsin Lynn Paul.....................University of Montana Anita Prieto..................University of Missouri-Columbia Alice Schawo..................University of Missouri-Columbia Butch Wilson..................University of Georgia _____________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University's School of Education with funding from the Kellogg Foundation. The journal is managed by graduate students in several countries and is electronically transmitted via the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), accessible through BITNET and Internet. There is no cost for NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION; it is sent to all subscribers of AEDNET. To correspond with NEW HORIZONS send email to horizons@suvm. Or, send postal mail to: AEDNET/NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270 (USA). Send submissions in electronic or paper form to the above addresses. ________________________________________________________________ N E W H O R I Z O N S IN A D U L T E D U C A T I O N CONTENTS Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 I N T R O D U C T I O N Editors' Preface.......................................1 A R T I C L E S Technology in the Classroom of the Future Wayne Hartshuh......................................... Model Building and Strategic Planning in Continuing Higher Education Paul J. Edelson......................................... B O O K R E V I E W CULTURE WARS Michael E Ehringhaus.................................... F O R Y O U R I N F O R M A T I O N Cummulative Index to New Horizons....................... Call For Manuscripts..................................... ______________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 EDITORS' PREFACE In this issue of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION under new editorship, we are glad to announce some new innovations. Soon subscribers will be able to automatically retrieve all issues of the journal. Also, in the new year we will begin discussions of single refereed articles over AEDNET. This will enable readers to dialogue with one another, editorial staff, and author(s) of each article. In this way, more subscribers will Editor Preface - Page 3 be able to share their viewpoints through a forum which exchanges reading and discussion of critical and other contemporary issues raised by the journal. This issue of NEW HORIZONS contains several articles that address very different aspects of adult education. TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM OF THE FUTURE, by Wayne Hartschuch, describes various technological advances that are shaping our classrooms. The article depicts important future innovations of which educators will want to take note. It provides a comprehensive focus on computer networks, electronic chalkboards, "Intelligent" tutoring systems, interactive videodisc and Skynet. It shows how future classroom design is affected by increasing knowledge of these innovations, impling that adult educators should begin developing their curricula to appropriately take advantage of new technologies. Paul Edelson's article MODEL BUILDING AND STRATEGIC PLANNING IN CONTINUING HIGHER EDUCATION, explores numerous alternative methods of Continuing Education to assist educators in program planning and administration. He describes 12 models of Continuing Higher Education which can shape the future of continuing education in view of current challenges. Edelson suggests that each subunit within continuing education be driven by its own value system; by looking at alternative models, adult educators can be freed from their unexamined assumptions. In his review of Ira Shor's book, CULTURE WARS, Michael Ehringhaus analyzes its main theme: that school reforms of the past two decades have been shaped by conservative forces which ignore the ideals of the sixties. Ehringhaus examines Ira's Shor's view that the school exists within the race, class, gender and cultural dynamics of the broader society, to conclude that the book is both "interesting and challenging" (p. 27). _______________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM OF THE FUTURE Hartshuh - Page 4 by Wayne Hartschuh Instructor, Computers Unlimited Magnet High School Kansas City, Missouri Ph.D. Student Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona ABSTRACT Educators should design future classrooms to optimize learning opportunities with a technology- based approach. The expansion of instructional technologies and their improvement opens the door to the futuristic classroom. Computer networks can bring together students engaged in common learning activities. The networkable chalkboard can improve legibility and flexibility in the arrangement and size of text and diagrams, with the capability of retrieving previously generated information. Intelligent tutoring systems give direction to the student's learning, based on student strengths and weaknesses rather than on pre-designed directives. Interactive videodisc combines computer technology with the power of video. The future looks bright as educators explore the potential of satellite systems, school-oriented news programs, and laser holography. INTRODUCTION The classroom of the future will be designed to optimize learning opportunities with a technology-based approach. The excitement surrounding the futuristic classroom lies in expanding the instructional uses of computer networks, networkable chalkboards, intelligent tutoring systems, interactive videodisc, satellite systems, school-oriented newsrooms, and laser holography. COMPUTER NETWORK A personal computer local area network (PC LAN) is a combination of hardware and software that links personal computers and peripherals to form a high-speed communications network in a limited geographic area. The most common use of a PC LAN is to share files and costly peripherals, Hartshuh - Page 5 such as printers and hard disks. Perhaps the most important future use of networks in the classroom will be to have several people engaged in a common learning activity, such as peer or cooperative learning. Students can help each other in joint learning activities through the network, and the learning that takes place can be greater than in current learning activities and much more focused (Bork, 1987). An example of cooperative learning concerns writing. Students can be in contact with other students through a network. The students, working through a network, can prepare an electronic newspaper for other students. Dr. Alfred Bork of the University of California, Irvine conducted a segment of a course where his students wrote entirely through a network, giving each other criticisms and suggestions. In the final product, Dr. Bork felt that the quality of writing in the group effort was much higher than the quality of writing he had previously seen by the same students in other individual writing activities. He concluded that when the students were using the computer network, they took more care and paid more attention to their writing for their professors (Bork, 1987). Classroom networks make a variety of activities possible. One student can be writing a composition while another student is reading it. Other students can be serving as critics, asking questions about the composition or offering suggestions for improvements through the network. Another possibility can be a form of problem- solving. A problem can be presented through the network which, needing a variety of steps, can be solved by the group. Each member of the group contributes ideas and evaluates the ideas of the other members (Bork, 1987). Common learning activities do not need to be limited to a local network. With the advent of low cost telecommunications networks, collaborative efforts between classes in different areas of the country or even the world are possible. THE NETWORKABLE CHALKBOARD The most common method of presenting material in today's classroom is the chalkboard. The chalkboard allows flexible placement of text and Hartshuh - Page 6 diagrams, but problems do occur, largely due to limited space. Items must be erased when space is needed for something else. The rearranging of items is inconvenient because those items must be manually rewritten or redrawn and then erased. Handwriting can be illegible, and information storage is unreliable. If chalkboard information is to be used for more than one day, it might be erased during another class which involves time- consuming replacement of the information onto the chalkboard. On the other hand, functions that are awkward or impossible on a chalkboard can easily be implemented with computers. Window systems and drawing aids provide the flexibility for rearranging of text and diagrams. Text can be displayed in different sizes and styles that are crisp and clear. File systems make it possible to retrieve information generated previously. With a PC LAN, students at work stations can share their views, point to items under discussion, and work on different aspects under discussion simultaneously (Stefik, et. al., 1987). This interesting implementation will be worth considering in the classroom of the future. Although computers are in widespread use, there is a tendency to leave them behind during group problem-solving. The Xerox Palo Alto Research Center is developing a system called Colab. It is an experimental meeting room created to study support of collaborating problem-solving in face-to-face meetings with the long-term goal of understanding how to build computer tools which make meetings and classes more effective. In its early stages, Colab currently connects small groups of two to six persons using personal computers over a local area network (Stefik, et. al., 1987). Colab is broken down into three tools: Boardnoter, which closely imitates the function of a chalkboard; Cognoter, a tool for organizing ideas to plan a presentation; and Argnoter, a tool for considering and evaluating alternate proposals (Stefik, et. al., 1987). Boardnoter, of most interest for classroom utilization, is ideally suited for courses that rely heavily on freestyle sketching, such as Geometry. A key feature in Boardnoter is a large area for freestyle sketching. Below the sketching/writing area is a "chalk tray" which Hartshuh - Page 7 contains a piece of chalk, an eraser, a miniature typewriter, and a pointer, the main four utilities for Boardnoter operation. To draw, one uses the "chalk." To erase, one uses the "eraser." To type, one uses the "typewriter." To point, one uses the "pointer." Usually, an instructor will use more than one board full of information in a class. At the bottom of the screen, there is a "stampsheet" of shrunken stampsized boards which makes it possible to obtain a fresh board or to switch back to a board created earlier (Stefik, et. a 1987). Enhancements to Boardnoter of particular interest to teachers include copying, moving, resizing, grouping, and smoothing (to neaten the sketch) (Stefik, et. al., 1987). The availability of such a tool for a PC LAN in the classroom of the future is exciting; creative imaginations will only help realize its full capability. INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS Intelligent tutoring systems or intelligent computer-assisted instruction (ICAI) can have a dramatic effect on education. In intelligent tutoring systems or ICAI, an expert system is used as the basis for instructional analysis. The expert system gives the ICAI program the intelligence to compare the learning task to the student response, attending to the things the pupil does wrong, forgets to do, does unnecessarily, and does in the wrong order. This automated tutor can then give direction to the student's learning based on the student's strengths and weaknesses. This means the intelligent system can branch on the basis of student interaction rather than to a pre-designed set of directives, thereby leading to changes in the instructional sequence or content based on the student responses (Winn, 1987). Working with these automated tutors or ICAI programs instead of using traditional teaching methods, may allow students to learn more in a shorter period of time. Remarkably, ICAI has adapted two time-tested teaching strategies to the computer situation: the Socratic approach and the coaching approach (Thorkildsen, Lubke, Margaret, Myette, & Perry, 1986). The Socratic approach expects the student to infer the correct response. The ICAI program guides the student through the logic of the instructional content with a series of questions. Hartshuh - Page 8 If the student errors, the program changes the order of questioning to help the student correct any misunderstandings (Thorkildsen, et al., 1986). ICAI programs which utilize the Socratic approach are SCHOLAR (Carbonell, 1970) and WHY (Stevens, Collins Goldin, 1978). The SCHOLAR program is a South American geography tutor. The WHY program is a tutorial relating rainfall and other physical elements such as moisture, wind, and warm air streams. The coaching approach allows the student to explore a variety of problem-solving methods. As the computer presents problems to the student, an intelligent tutoring component analyzes student responses and suggests alternate methods and why the alternate method was chosen (Thorkildsen, et al., 1986). A program which uses the coaching approach is WEST (Burton Brown, 1976). WEST coaches students to apply efficient ways to solve problems in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The computer coach in WEST offers criticisms and suggests to the student ways to improve their arithmetic problem-solving. The construction of deductive proofs in a traditional Geometry class is a major stumbling block for many high school students. The Geometry Proof Tutor (GPTutor), a computer-based artificially intelligent tutoring system designed to give one-on-one coaching to the student during proof construction. GPTutor allows students to work at their own pace without the strain of peer pressure, favorably impacting student ability and attitude. (Wertheimer, 1990) A definite advantage for an efficient classroom of the future! Although these programs are strictly computer oriented, the exciting part of ICAI lies in multimedia. Advances in videodisc and CD-ROM technology make the multimedia approach to ICAI available. The capability of incorporating audio and video into a computer guided instructional setting is staggering in its potential. INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC The classroom of the future will allow students to access videodisc technology. A teacher will be able to prepare group presentations supplemented with videodisc or use interactive programs for individual or small group work. Interactive videodiscs may allow students Hartshuh - Page 9 to work independently for enrichment and remediation. An interactive videodisc program claims to teach a student faster and with more retention than by traditional teaching methods. A "videodisc-enabled" teacher will be capable of producing a series of stills or motion video sequences to supplement a lecture, segments which can be stored on computer disk for future use. After saving the original information, additions and changes can be made in the future. Producing these sequences will not necessarily be limited to the teacher. They can create a valuable learning experience by allowing students to produce the programs. The National Geographic Society, in collaboration with Lucasfilm, Ltd., has produced a videodisc program called GTV: A Geographic Perspective on American History. GTV is a visual journey through American history with an emphasis on geography. The videodiscs contain two hours of video which includes 40 short shows, over 1600 pictures (slides), and 200 maps. The videodiscs are designed so that they can be used as a stand- alone linear program or in conjunction with a computer-driven program. Utilizing a computer and accompanying software to control the videodisc, the visuals can be accessed in any order. Consequently, the teacher, or the student can create custom presentations utilizing any of the shows, pictures, or maps which are part of the videodiscs. Imagine how creative a student can be in the "videodisc-enabled" classroom of the future. With videodisc programs, such as, GTV, instead of writing a 10 page term paper, the student can create a 15- 20 minute interactive videodisc presentation utilizing still frame video, maps created with computer graphics, and full motion video. SKYNET 2000 The classroom of the future will have access to technology capable of retrieving information from various sources, but perhaps the most exciting source is from the satellite. According to Jeffery Kluger, human beings have a peculiar problem: more information than they can handle. In the past few decades, knowledge has multiplied at enormous rates. This human quest for more knowledge has yielded a mountain of information. Hartshuh - Page 10 The problem is that humans have no efficient way of spreading this wealth of information around the world. How can information be shared with information-hungry people in classrooms around the world? The answer may be Skynet 2000, a satellite system that is an orbiting data bank (Kluger, 1984). Engineer Charles Gould has proposed a sophisticated communications network that could give anyone on earth direct access to data banks without going through the conventional channels of telephone or radio. Gould suggests that we "hurl the entire hornet's nest into space." He envisions a ten satellite system in geosynchronous orbits linked together by laser, avoiding the plagues of radio signal interface (Kluger, 1984). A similar concept being proposed uses 'cellular phone systems'; Skynet 2000 goes a step further by putting the mass memory devices in space. Users with pocket phones would communicate with any other phone in the world, or access the satellite data banks with portable computer terminals. Given this technology, people could access the data base from anywhere in the world, such as, farmers in corn fields, researchers at sea, climbers on a mountaintop, or airplane pilots in flight (Kluger, 1984). CNN NEWSROOM: EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION CNN Newsroom, an educational service of the Turner Broadcasting System, began operation on August 14, 1989. CNN, the nation's largest newsgathering organization, prepares the daily 15 minute program on the top news items of the day with at least one major story reported in depth. CNN then delivers CNN Newsroom via satellite to local cable television outlets for broadcast in an early morning time slot (3:45 AM, EST). Schools, similarly, can enroll in the CNN Newsroom service, allowing them to videotape the program during the early morning with unlimited off-cable taping and duplicating rights. Therefore, teachers can decide when, where, and how the programs are used in the classroom. For example, programs can be used daily or bits and pieces of the daily programs can be edited into a weekly classroom presentation. Daily teacher guides are prepared by professional educators as each program is completed, making the daily guide absolutely current and almost as immediate as the Hartshuh - Page 11 news. The teacher guides are available for printing and duplicating by cable via Telecommunications Inc.'s X-PRESS X-Change service and through GTE electronic mail service for downloading to a personal computer. The innovation of using satellites, cable television, and electronic mail, in combination with inventive teachers across the nation, are realizing the promise of the global village. The creative efforts of a major newsgathering organization and teachers are linking television news with the curriculum. Future uses of this technology may grow with the success of CNN Newsroom. Early indications show that CNN Newsroom is well accepted and successful. In the first 8 months of operation, over 7000 schools had enrolled in the service with projections for the second year of operation being over 10,000 schools. If success breeds success, look for other services to "spring up" in the future. LASER HOLOGRAPHY Not too far in the future lies the ability to project a three dimensional image in the air anywhere in the world through laser holographic technology. Imagine the educational benefits bringing a moving three-dimensional image of the President, a celebrity, or an expert from any field into the classroom to hold an interactive conversation with the students. Laser holography has potential outside the classroom as well. Millions of dollars are spent preparing and securing summit conferences between heads of state. With laser holography, a scenario such as this could occur. In five cities, Washington D.C., London, Paris, Moscow, and Bonn, identical conference rooms are constructed. Each room has an identical table, identical chairs, and identical decor. The only difference is that each room has only one real participant, all others are holographic images. To each person involved in the conference, though, it appears that the other people are actually there. Holographic conferences would allow everyone to participate as if all parties were actually present, but without the security problems and recurring expenses that presently exist when moving a large entourage around the world. Hartshuh - Page 12 CONCLUSION The technological classroom of the future has exciting possibilities with computer networks, interactive videodisc, and intelligent tutoring systems offering the most immediate opportunity for placement in the classroom. The cost of equipment is a major obstacle, but with the cost of computers and vieodiscs dropping, this technology is starting to infiltrate the classroom. While the cost of laser holography is still out of reach, satellite technology and fiber optics are becoming affordable enough to make an impact in the classroom. In the upcoming century, continued technological advances will provide classroom possibilities that surpass our present imaginations. REFERENCES Bork, A. (1987, May). Computer networks for learning. THE JOURNAL. pp. 68-71. Burton, R. and Brown, J.S. (1976). A tutoring and student modeling paradigm for gaming environments. In R. Coleman and P. Lorton, Jr., (Eds.) Computer science and education. ACM SIGCSE BULLETIN, 8(1), 236-46. Carbonell, J. R. (1970). AI in CAI: An artificial intelligence approach to computer assisted instruction. IEEE transactions on man-machine systems, MMS 11(4). Ferrara, J M., Prater, M A, and Baer, R. (1987). Using an expert system for complex conceptual training. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY. 27(5), 43-46. Haynes, J.A., Pilato, V., and Malouf, D. B. (1987). Expert system for educational decision-making. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY. 27(5), 37-42. Kluger, J. (March 1984). Skynet 2000: Everybody's orbiting data bank. SCIENCE DIGEST. 48. Stefik, M., Foster, G., Bobrow, D.G., Kahn, K., Lanning, S., and Suchman, L. (1987). Beyond the chalkboard: Computer support for collaboration and problem solving in meetings. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM. 30(1), 32-47. Hartshuh - Page 13 Stevens, A.L., Collins, A., and Goldin, S.E. (1982). Misconceptions in student's understanding. In D. Sleeman and J.S. Brown (Eds.) INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS. New York, NY: Academic Press. Thorkildsen, R.J., Lubke, Margaret M., Myette, B.M., and Parry, J.D. (1985- 1986). Artificial intelligence: Applications in education. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH QUARTERLY. 10(1), 2-9. Wertheimer, R. (1990). The geometry proof tutor: An "intelligent" computer-based tutor in the classroom. MATHEMATICS TEACHER. 84(4), 308-17. Winn, W. (1987). Instructional design and intelligent systems: shifts in the designer's decision-making role. INSTRUCTIONAL SCIENCE. 16, 59-77. Hartshuh - Page 14 ________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 MODEL BUILDING AND STRATEGIC PLANNING IN CONTINUING HIGHER EDUCATION by Dr. Paul J. Edelson State University of New York at Stoney Brook ABSTRACT The value of creating descriptive models for organizing continuing higher education is explored in this paper as a way of critically assessing previously unexamined assumptions. Limitations of the pervasive marketing model are explored and twelve alternatives are described including the omnibus, academic department, and facilitator. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The administrative context of continuing education in colleges and universities has emphasized a market driven approach to enrollment issues. In both credit and non- credit programs, viability is often an outcome of registration. Consequently, the continuing education manager is hard pressed to retain courses that fail to justify themselves financially. A strategy develops wherein highly successful programs or "cash cows," as they are called, are milked to keep less successful programs alive. Experienced managers learn how to anticipate the life cycle of programs. They know from experience that "cash cows" will eventually go dry and new programs must be developed to take their place. This marketing model, appropriated from the business world, is so pervasive in continuing education that it is often Edelson - Page 15 uncritically accepted a priori and frames definitions of a program's success or failure and that of individual careers. Operationally, the model determines which audiences will be served and the types of educational activities that can be offered. Strategic planning in this sales-oriented environment becomes very similar to product development. Positioning, market research, course development, advertising and promotion become significant administrative activities. Course evaluations are viewed as ways of measuring consumer satisfaction and identifying new course ideas. Without doubt this corporate-inspired model, stressing the development of marketable programs, has been able to successfully address the need for identifying high demand programs, assuring acceptable levels of quality, and, most importantly, satisfying the financial requirements imposed upon continuing education by the institution. Its uncritical acceptance, however, has dampened enthusiasm for experimentation with other approaches to program development and continuing education administration that might equally suffice under current conditions. Moreover, while it may not be feasible, nor even desirable, to jettison the marketing model, creative professionals may find ways to modify it, thereby mitigating its most noxious aspects. Being able to visualize different models for continuing education becomes a key element in thinking of alternative organizational approaches. In fact, it is the most meaningful type of strategic planning since it is fundamental, and a prelude, to the development of programs and their implementation. Standing back from the marketing model and viewing it as one of many possible realities, we can become architects of our personal visions for continuing education that come closer to reconciling professional needs with institutional requirements. For example, Edelson (l990b) proposed a model of continuing education as a Third World entity within the political milieu of the university. The role of the dean or director could be understood in both policy Edelson - Page 16 and representational dimensions and resembled that of the diplomat. A major responsibility for the continuing education leader in this construct is to secure political autonomy for continuing education which could chart its own destiny. In order to do this, the unit must skillfully articulate a philosophy and, then, conduct its affairs in ways that enable it to optimally address adult learning needs within the university. Pragmatically, this meant the development of specialized curricula for part-time adults instead of the continuing education unit serving as a shunting mechanism that moved students to other parts of the university where they were served in an inadequate, hit or miss fashion by traditional programs that were insufficiently adapted to their needs. Understanding campus environments or cultures becomes a key undertaking for those who seek to redefine the practice of continuing education at their institutions since it is within these social matrices that change, based upon new organizational models, does or does not take place. Edelson (l990a) developed a framework for analyzing continuing higher education within the context of campus cultures so that managers would have insight into important situational variables that could account for differences between collegiate continuing education programs. These factors, including the tradition of continuing education at the campus, the extent to which the college budget is tuition driven, and the geographic location of the school, present both opportunities and limitations for model building in continuing education. THE TWELVE MODELS In this paper, twelve different ways of viewing continuing higher education are described in varying detail. Each draws attention to alternative relationships between the continuing education program, its institutional setting, and the role of leadership, a methodology adapted from Gareth Morgan's IMAGES OF ORGANIZATION (1986). The models suggest a range of possibilities. Though intended to be value neutral, they may engender strong feelings Edelson - Page 17 based upon the reader's own convictions about what is desirable continuing education practice. The models, then, are presented as a challenge to our customary ways of thinking about what we do, not necessarily as a prescription for change. Omnibus Model This term is used by Clark (1956) to describe the multipurpose mission of adult education in the California public schools, but it also is an effective way of interpreting what transpires within the collegiate setting. The omnibus carries, in some instances, credit, non-credit, public service, contract training and so forth. Yet, an omnibus also suggests a certain fixed capacity or number of seats that can be filled. The model also implies an ideal design for a particular purpose - in other words, specialization. This can be an ambitious model since it lends itself to program expansion, though at the same time acknowledging constraints in design and resources that may exist. Academic Department Model Clark (1987) describes the expansion of college and university departments based upon the dynamics of knowledge creation within academic disciplines. For example, as frontiers of research expand, new fields of inquiry are developed which lead to additional academic positions established within departments in order to address these subfields. The capacity for expansion, at least theoretically, is limitless. No one can really predict what any particular academic field will look like in 20 years. All we can be sure of is that there will be change as new areas are discovered, and, perhaps, old areas abandoned. Many would argue, however, that the latter alternative rarely comes to pass. Applied to continuing education, the horizontal departmental model also implies an evolving, developing, academic discipline- oriented unit which continually pushes against the margins. Perhaps this model of continuing higher education is most Edelson - Page 18 appropriate for a graduate research university whose self-identity is tied up with the knowledge explosion. Certainly, it is a model without limits and implies an abundance of resources. The implementation of this approach might entail offering courses in the subject area of adult education. As an example, the University of London's Birkbeck College, through its Centre for Extramural Studies, offers a non-credit certificate program in adult education designed for practitioners. Laminate Model The process of lamination fuses or joins together a number of structural components. Usually in a sheet format, laminates such as plywood or now in new metal technologies, are extremely strong, durable and flexible. Yet, there is also a maximum size beyond which they are not practical, either in terms of function or cost. The laminate is a rather static, fixed model compared with the omnibus or department. A continuing education laminate might include a set number of well- defined functions, such as contract training, conferences, and short courses, which are performed in an extremely efficient, effective manner. This laminate model describes a good number of continuing higher education programs whose activities are largely already established. It is an attractive model largely because it preserves both diversity with a concern for process technology. Amoeba Model This organic model has no fixed shape or form. Instead, the protoplasmic mass can flow in various directions simultaneously. It is characterized by movement and change and has been a very successful form of life that coexists with other more highly evolved species. The opportunistic dimension of continuing higher education makes the amoeba model appealing. Part of the "saga" of the continuing education profession revolves about the mandate to find a need and fill it. Being so market driven implies a searching out and flow in many experimental directions simultaneously. The changing picture of the environment also implies a counter-flow, as Edelson - Page 19 well, should market conditions alter. The amoeba model conveys a structural softness with an emphasis on adaptability. Internally, however, there is a nucleus and a variety of specialized organs that fulfill a management function. Ghetto Model In addition to the Third World metaphor, another related, political model exists - that of the ghetto. Undesirable and marginal populations -- economically, politically and socially -- are relegated to the ghetto where their presence does not bother nor intrude upon others. Services are generally poor to non-existent, a Hobbesian existence with neither amenities nor peace of mind. Applied to the university, marginal populations of part-time adult students are made to feel unwelcome in full-time traditional programs which are not adapted to their needs. Often a continuing education unit exists to serve these populations with a paucity of resources at its disposal. Course offerings may be fewer than necessary and some think of substandard quality. Yet, the vitality of the human spirit with its infinite creative potential can help to fashion a viable subculture of beauty, variety, and substance. Rebel Model The subculture of marginality inherent in the field of continuing education may serve to attract as practitioners those who feel marginal or trapped between the appeals of conventionality and radicalism. To be successful requires a passionate commitment to principle and a willingness to be forcefully engaged against establishment values in perpetual struggle, strife, and the process of selfdefinition. For the rebel, adult education is a "cause" and part of an existential search for meaning. Social Worker Model There is a strong affinity between the social worker and the rebel since both adhere to a program of societal reform through continuing education. The social worker views continuing education as a "helping" profession. There is a strong emphasis on Edelson - Page 20 vocational training, adult basic education, education for specialized constituencies in need, including the poor, the disadvantaged, the elderly. Interestingly, the present popularity within four year colleges and universities of "Lifelong Learning Programs" for senior citizens derives from the application of a marketing model rather than one drawn from the social services. Mediator Model Colleges are often viewed as complex, highly abstract bundles of critically important esoteric research and scholarly activity which are impossible to grasp either discretely or in totality. Continuing education as an "applied" area takes research and transmogrifies it into something more readily understood and appreciated. This model, then, places continuing higher education at the interface of the university and the larger, external community. The rationale for this interpretive model is articulated at length by Lynton and Elman (1987). It is a particularly appealing model for presidents, university development and information officers, and others who are constantly trying to explain the university to outsiders, including politicians. The downside of the interpretive model is that it relegates continuing education to that of a derivative subsystem with little independence. Furthermore, in the dialogue between town and gown, the middleman is likely to be misunderstood or, worse yet, caught between the incompatibility of unrealistic demands made by the public and the inadequate resources of the university, thereby dampening its capacity to adequately respond. Bureaucracy Model Because this model suppresses the content dimension of continuing education in favor of the bureaucratic procedures of administration, continuing education is viewed as a way of processing an additional stream of students through the educational machinery of the university. It is possible to view the work of continuing education professionals as a form of enrollment Edelson - Page 21 management, similar to that which transpires within the realm of college admissions or the underpinning provided by offices of undergraduate and graduate studies. Continuing education units which administer and manage a university summer session may, inadvertently, provide a rationale for the application of this model to interpret distinctively different continuing education activities they may also conduct such as program development. Essentially, it is a restricted vision of continuing education since it downplays the creation of new academic programs. Sailboat Model The sailboat is dependent upon the wind, although it may also have an auxiliary means of power - usually a small, fuel powered, engine for use in situations of no wind or when maneuvering in close quarters. The continuing education sailboat is kept in motion by enrollments. To maintain movement, it must follow the breeze programmatically, perhaps changing course from time to time as the winds (student interest in programs) shift in both direction and magnitude. Permanent support, independent of those resources generated by enrollment, is viewed as supplemental to what the continuing education unit can and must generate from its tuition supported, market driven, activities. Grant support for special purposes can also be a source of motion, but this, too, is subject to dramatic shifts in direction. Facilitator Model This popular model places continuing education in a relationship supportive of other college programs which are assisted in some way or another by the continuing education office. Such support may take the form of program scheduling, enrolling students, budgeting, providing logistical classroom support, and conducting evaluations. The continuing education unit may even develop the program concept and then take it to an academic department which supplies a faculty member. The facilitative model has been viewed benignly as symbiotic, since both academic Edelson - Page 22 department and continuing education appear to derive benefits. It is also seen as an expression of institutional specialization, with each subsystem performing a unique role. Conversely, critics find fault with continuing education's subordinated status, providing the essential, but unappreciated, support functions. Moreover, in some iterations of "facilitator" continuing education is expected to implement any and all programmatic ideas brought to the unit's attention by other sectors of the college. This reactive posture becomes exceedingly awkward and uncomfortable when programs do poorly. Melange Model Many different programs and activities are found in the continuing education melange. On some campuses it may include a summer session and summer camp, coordination of conference facilities including a residential component, economic development forums, campus media support, and a crafts center. Any or all of these elements may rotate in or out of the unit over time depending upon prevailing administrative viewpoints, budgetary viability, or personality factors. In short, there is no unifying philosophy for continuing education that would provide guidelines for determining what activities the unit should or should not conduct. Nevertheless, some melanges may be highly successful, with a unique, if not adventitious, blending of ingredients. Far too often, the mixture falls short of expectations, leaving one to speculate on what should be eliminated. In contrast to the omnibus or amoeba, the melange is complete improvisation based upon what ingredients are at hand at a particular time. Also while an amoeba has its own organic dynamism, the melange is a recipient of what others add or subtract. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Clearly these models are not exhaustive, and it is likely that others will be created based upon further research and experience. These twelve just begin to suggest ways of Edelson - Page 23 conceptualizing greater variety in continuing higher education. From observation, I know it may be possible to have a continuing education division or school consisting of several subunits, each driven by its own value system: (a) a contract unit that is market driven; (b) a credit curriculum that may be animated by traditional academic norms, but with some adaptation for non-traditional part-time adult students; (c) a grant supported unit that functions opportunistically, depending upon what funding sources are currently available; a social service component that conducts traditional (d) community service outreach projects such as remedial education; and (e) non-credit training and leisure oriented courses that are tuition supported. In fact, what I am describing is the typical omnibus continuing education unit, perhaps the most prevalent model for American continuing higher education that tries to be, simultaneously, many things for many different publics. But, at what point do we determine that the omnibus is filled? Should constraints be imposed by logistical considerations only? For example, in the illustration just cited, are we to make decisions to expand or constrict a specific function such as contract training on the availability of resources? Or, should the judgment be based on notions of institutional appropriateness? (Freedman 1987). Looking at this from another perspective, a highly politicized definition of the university taking a Third World view might argue that all continuing education growth should be initially inspired by the need to construct a sound and stable economic base, one that would help preserve autonomy. Growth in contract training could indeed provide that security. On the other hand, a strong, pervasive, social worker ideology would be highly predictive on where expansion should take place, most likely not in corporate training programs. We very quickly find that the satisfaction of matching our own adult education program with a particular model (if Edelson - Page 24 we are able to do this) gives way to the frustration of realizing that this exercise is inadequate for the demands of administrative decision making encountered in real life situations. In short, a model that may explain what we are (such as a laminate) may not suggest what future action we should take. Clearly, there is a need for an overarching continuing education value structure or ideology that is able to unite divergent subunits on behalf of a larger purpose and also provide some basis for guiding growth. From this intellectual base, leadership behavior is likely to be more valid than if it were simply a determinant of administrative structure. This point brings us back to the marketing model, stressing program development and sales used to introduce this paper. "Cash cows" generating excess revenue may very well be essential if the continuing education unit is to engage in certain types of community service programs that are not financially remunerative and for which there are no other sources of fiscal support. Clearly communicating this rationale to continuing education program coordinators could lead to a healthy airing of the values and assumptions underlying administrative decisions. Within the ensuing dialogues, explorations of model building can add complexity as well as a subtlety to discussions of purpose and, later, strategy. The process of model building is richly rewarding for the light that it casts upon our activities. Seeing critically, what we believed to be a "given" as one of several equally valid alternatives frees continuing education from being a prisoner of unexamined assumptions. This enlightened stance is readily incorporated in adult education programs created for other professions. How fitting that it become a leitmotif for our own development. REFERENCES Clark, B. (1987) THE ACADEMIC PROFESSION. Berkeley: University of California Press. Clark, B. (1956 reprinted in 1980) ADULT EDUCATION IN TRANSITION. New York: Arno Edelson - Page 25 Press. Edelson, P.J. (1990a) "Campus cultures and continuing education: Discovering relationships." CONTINUING HIGHER EDUCATION REVIEW, 54 (2), 35-42. Edelson, P.J. (1990b) "The dean of continuing education: A diplomatic model." JOURNAL OF CONTINUING HIGHER EDUCATION, 38 (2), 29-33. Freedman, L. (1987) QUALITY IN CONTINUING EDUCATION. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lynton, E.A. and Elman, S.E. (1987) NEW PRIORITIES FOR THE UNIVERSITY. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morgan, G. (1986) IMAGES OF ORGANIZATION. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. ___________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 BOOK REVIEW by Michael Erskine Ehringhaus Associate Examiner, Educational Testing Service Shor, I. CULTURE WARS: SCHOOL AND SOCIETY IN THE CONSERVATIVE RESTORATION 1969-1984. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. 238 pages. Bertrand Russell (1931) said that "the universe is all spots and jumps" (p. 98). I have a similar impression of history. The 1960s in North America, rather than being merely an extension of its past, was a decade of the unforeseen, the revolutionary, the dynamic; the language was one of possibilities, and the Ehringhaus - Page 26 questions challenged established authority. Yet, the two decades that followed the 1960s reflect a conservative restoration, a coalition of social, economic, educational, and cultural forces that attempted to subdue the momentum of the earlier decade's queries. And it is within this social and political backdrop that adult education in North America has grown and, at the same time, been shaped. In his book, CULTURE WARS, Ira Shor describes this restoration and its efforts to use the curriculum of the school to intercede in complex and global social predicaments. He does not view schooling as something that is confined behind the walls of buildings; he sees it as situated within the race, class, gender, and culture dynamics that exist in the broader society. Our educational system, as viewed by Shor, is an arena in which different groups with varying conceptions of what constitutes important knowledge scuffle over outcomes and procedures. The culture within the school is the result of this melee, a culmination of compromises and accords between factions. In this sense, the process of schooling is unremittingly political. CULTURE WARS is an important contribution to the dialogue within radical education that is associated with other North Americans such as Apple, Giroux, and Wexler. Many of our radical educational writings focus on the relationship between education and the social issues of gender, class, race, and culture but are not, however, accessible to a broad audience. Instead, they are published in academic journals or scholarly books and thus confined to the speech community of a fairly rarefied group of professional educators and academicians. What makes this book somewhat special, and in many ways separates it from others in the radical camp, is its language: It is written in a relatively easy-to-understand manner, one that places commonly known social and political events in a certain perspective. The language in CULTURE WARS is, for the most part, public, not private. Shor discusses three principal phases of school reform in his examination of public efforts to regulate curriculum so that it could conform to dominant political and social needs. The first, from 1971-75, he called, "The War for Careerism." Shor states: Ehringhaus - Page 27 The swing to careerism thus had very little to do with improving the quality of life, with insuring economic recovery, with the superiority of professional over liberal education, or with rational manpower planning. Careerism from Nixon to Reagan was what it had always been--a confirmation of social inequality, a prevention against class-leveling, and a replacement of opposition intellect with business training. (pp. 55-6) In this sense, the move toward careerism in the school curriculum was a shift away from the activism and aspirations of the 1960s. Shor notes several profound effects: the channeling of students towards low-wage jobs, the lessening of exposure (through the curriculum) to social issues, and the interference of critical learning from the humanities. Shor's second phase, from 1975-82, was related to language competence and was seen as a literacy crisis. Shor termed this phase "The War on Illiteracy." As he noted, "the conservative tide had overtaken the 1960s, and a mounting conservative climate existed to use traditionalist themes like back-to-basics and anti-egalitarian notions like mass illiteracy"(p. 61). These themes, in Shor's examination, explained away the economic problems within society and, at the same time, placed the blame on students for the apparent drop in standardized test scores, a placement which justified inequality in school performance results and in social status. The third and final phase Shor discusses, from 1982-84, is embedded in the demands of authorities for more discipline in the schools, greater curriculum attention to academic subjects, and computer training. Shor calls this phase "The War for Excellence and against Mediocrity." If the success and failure of careerism and back-to- basics were the deactivation of students, the task for the 1983 reforms was to reactivate them in directions needed by business and government (p. 107). Ironically, the agenda for this 1983 official educational gamble put the educational system up for scrutiny and reform by encouraging a critical look at the system itself. Both A NATION AT RISK and THE PAIDEIA PROPOSAL mirrored this scrutiny and, as Shor claims, reflect the rhetoric of alarm and the official agendas for reform. Ehringhaus - Page 28 Shor's interpretation of social events and forces along with their impact on educational policy and curriculum needs careful reading. While some of the radical theorists in education have moved away from the correspondence theory of people like Bowles and Gintis (SCHOOLING IN CAPITALIST AMERICA, 1976), Shor's thesis retains much of its flavor. His position, at times, seems to engage the more refractory interpretation of ideology and power relations of the early 1970s. While this could be construed as a limitation or throwback, I think Shor does an adequate job of delineating the relationship between education and certain broader social forces without allowing his thesis to fall into the lock-step widget of correspondence theory. In the end, Shor proposes one operational goal for the classroom: critical literacy. Critical Literacy does not inject students with dominant ideology. It does not place cultivated expression on a pedestal. Neither does it present traditional subject matter as the fixed form of wisdom. The most-valued forms of speaking and knowing are not universal standards of excellence but are themselves products of power and inequity. They come down through the ages from societies which never provided equal learning to all their members. A desocializing classroom examines all idioms and all objects of study with critical intentions, with democratic interests to challenge domination. (p. 190) Shor's view is not too distant from that of John Dewey (1916) who, in the early part of this century, condemned the pedagogy of the talking teacher and proclaimed the failure of externally imposed educational ends. CULTURE WARS is an interesting and challenging book, as Shor ties some events of the past three decades together with the thread of his perspective. "Each of the principal phases of school reform corresponds to a specific political intention in the interest of safeguarding the establishment" (Paulo Freire, Forward, p. xvi). Just as the 1960s represented the "spots and jumps" of a certain historic period, the social and political events of the succeeding two decades embodied reactions to this era, retorts to its language of possibilities, and rejoinders to its Ehringhaus - Page 29 questions. REFERENCES Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). SCHOOLING IN CAPITALIST AMERICA. New York: Basic Books. Dewey, J. (1916). DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION. New York: Free Press edition, 1967. Freire, P. (1986). In CULTURE WARS (Forward). Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Russell, B. (1931). THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 ___________________________________________________ CUMMULATIVE INDEX OF NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION 1. Volume 1 Number 1 ___________________________________________________ Adult Education in Nicaragua: Adapting and Growing in a Changing Reality by Samuel Simpson 2. Volume 2 Number 1 ____________________________________________________ Propaganda in Adult Education by Richard Novak The Informing of Adult Education by Adult Development by Nancy E. Hagan Procedures for Writers in the Field of Adult Education: How to Make Your Writings More Consistently Accessible within Computerized Information Databases by Judith Gwinn Adrain Feminist Methodology: A new Way of Knowing? by Carolyn Chase Volume 2 Number 2 Index - Page 30 ______________________________________________________ Into 'Terra Incognito': Considerations on the 'Timeliness' and 'Importance' of the Carnegie corporation's early Involvement in Adult Education by Michael Law Women and Literacy in Tanzania by Sharon Cramer Bell Physical Learning Environments: Why Be concerned by Rodney Fulton Introducing Metaphors of Chaos to Adult Education by Robert Domaingue Volume 3 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Comparison of Computer and Audio Teleconferencing: One instructor's View by Norman Coombs Intellectual Suppression: Australian Case Histories, Analysis and Responses by Roger Boshier Volume 4 Number 1 ___________________________________________________________ Straight Time and Standard Brand Adult Education by John Ohliger A Comparison of Folk High Schools in Denmark, and East and West Germany by Robert Wendel A Descriptive Appraisal of Functional Literacy in Nigeria by Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi Intentional Changes by David Price Volume 5 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Community Adult Education In America: An Overview by Michael W. Galbraith and David Price Community Adult Education In Developing Countries by Linda Ziegahn Index - Page 31 Facilitated Community Development In A Rural Area by Allen B. Moore and Mary Anne Lahey Envisioning A Sustainable Society: Learning Our Way Out by Daniel V. Eastmond NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 ___________________________________________________ CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, seeks manuscripts for its 1992 issues. The editors solicit submissions of original research, conceptual analyses, case studies, and book reviews relating to adult education efforts. Faculty, graduate students, practitioners, and others concerned with adult education are welcome to submit articles. Once it receives the manuscripts, NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION coordinates a double-blind review by four of its editorial board members. Submissions must be authors' original work and not previously published. Manuscript Preparation: There are no length requirements; reviewers will evaluate articles to see that the subject and substance warrants the length. Submitted articles should include the title of the manuscript, full names, institutional affiliations, and positions of authors. Manuscripts should conform to the rules governing manuscript style and references outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), Third Edition. Text and references normally underscored should instead be typed in upper case (all caps). Authors should use written text explanations of concepts and data rather than diagrams or graphics, but simple tabular data, may be included. Forms of Submission: NEW HORIZONS accepts manuscripts in the following forms: 1) Electronic mail transmitted electronically to the NEW HORIZONS electronic address: horizons@suvm Manuscripts - Page 32 (for BITNET) or horizons@suvm.acs.syr.edu. (for Internet). 2) Electronic copies stored in ASCII, the universal computer language, and mailed on floppy disk to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse NY 13244-1270. 3) Printed copies mailed to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270. Authors who submit printed manuscripts that are ultimately accepted for publication will provide, if possible, their manuscripts in electronic form. About the Journal: NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, founded in 1987, is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University. It is electronically transmitted to subscribers' personal computers via mainframe computers. Graduate student editors manage the journal in cooperation with an international editorial board also comprised of graduate students. There is no cost for subscription to NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, since issues are sent electronically to subscribers of the Adult Education Network (AEDNET). Journal subscription and membership in AEDNET is made by request via electronic mail to aednet@suvm (for BITNET) or aednet@suvm.acs.syr.edu (for Internet). NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is indexed and abstracted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------