From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:43:43 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:14:38 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL6N1 (1/1) Archive HORIZONS, file vol6n1. Part 1/1, total size 91028 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ ********************************************************** ********************************************************** ******************** ********************** ************* ************* ******* ******** **** ***** *** *** ** ** * NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION * * ISSN. 1062-3183 * ********************************************************** Volume 6 Number 1 Spring, 1992 ********************************************************** EDITORS Charles Awasu.................Syracuse University Daniel V. Eastmond............Syracuse University Preston A. Clark .............Syracuse University COPY EDITOR Patricia Soper................Syracuse University EDITORIAL BOARD Robert Ballance...............North Carolina State University Sue Collard...................University of British Columbia Wayne Hartschuh...............Arizona State University Janice B. Johnson.............University of British Columbia Oma Morey.....................University of Texas at Austin Christine Olgren..............University of Wisconsin Lynn Paul.....................University of Montana Anita Prieto..................University of Missouri-Columbia Alice Schawo..................University of Missouri-Columbia Susan B. Slusarski............Syracuse University Edward W. Taylor..............University of Georgia Kimberly A. Townsend..........Pennsylvania State University Patricia Ann Weeks............Queensland University of Technology _____________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University's School of Education with funding from the Kellogg Foundation. The journal is managed by graduate students in several countries and is electronically transmitted via the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), accessible through BITNET and Internet. There is no cost for NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION; it is sent to all subscribers of AEDNET. PAGE 2 NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION CONTENTS Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 I N T R O D U C T I O N Editor's Preface ...................................1 A R T I C L E S Characteristics of Adult Education Students and the Factors Which Determine Course and Program Completion: A Review Mary Flanagan Sheets................................3 Working Toward More Effective Adult Christian Education: A Case Study of Youngville Baptist Church Robert C. Ballance..................................19 B O O K R E V I E W In A Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development Susan Slusarski.....................................27 F O R Y O U R I N F O R M A T I O N Cumulative Index to New Horizons....................33 Call For Manuscripts................................35 _______________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 EDITORS' PREFACE This issue of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, includes the first article we have ever discussed on-line: CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION STUDENTS AND FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE COMPLETION: A REVIEW. From the number and quality of responses we received, we feel that AEDNET forum is an excellent way to critically examine adult education topics further. We will continue to discuss articles on-line. This issue of NEW HORIZONS contains three articles on Preface - Page 3 different adult education topics. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION STUDENTS AND FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE COMPLETION: A REVIEW by Mary Sheets looks at distance education with a focus on student involvement, program planning administration and evaluation. The article describes the characteristics of participants, compares distance and conventional learners and analyzes factors that affect persistence in distance education. Robert Ballance's article, WORKING TOWARD MORE EFFECTIVE ADULT CHRISTIAN EDUCATION: A CASE OF YOUNGVILLE BAPTIST CHURCH analyzes adult Christian education in practice. The article critically looks at present delivery methods based on an evaluative study. It recommends the use of adult education methods including learner participation, community outreach and continuous assessment, as ways of improving the effectiveness of Christian education. In her review of Gilligan's book, IN A DIFFERENT VOICE: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT, Susan Slusarski clearly examines the six parts of the book's thesis and how they relate to the differences between the sexes. Slusarski's review stresses the importance of understanding human development and gender to improve adult educator effectiveness. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 _______________________________________________ CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT EDUCATION STUDENTS AND FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE COURSE COMPLETION: A REVIEW by Mary Flanagan Sheets Instructor, University of Central Oklahoma Edmond, Oklahoma ABSTRACT This paper reviews research on participants and persistence in distance education. The purpose of the paper is to relate selected research findings Sheets - Page 4 (contained in published journals or ERIC documents) on participants and persistence to a theoretical framework based on the literature of adult education and distance education. The findings are divided into three categories: descriptive research on distance education participants' characteristics; comparisons of distance students and conventional students; and studies of student characteristics as they relate to persistence in distance education courses and programs. Selected findings in the latter category are further related to other theories of distance education. INTRODUCTION In preparing to enter the next century, higher education professionals face the challenges of serving a student population and society that are far more diverse than those of the mid-20th century. Workers of the past tended to be agricultural or blue- collar and their formal educations ending before or at he conclusion of high school. Young persons who chose to enter the professions completed their college educations at relatively young ages and then entered he world of work. Few workers changed jobs frequently; even fewer were inclined to change careers. Women and minorities had only a handful of educational and career opportunities. In the latter half of this century, however, most persons enjoy some form of access to higher education. Women and minorities may participate more fully in education and the work force. Rapid technological changes compel more persons to seek additional education to understand their jobs. Economic pressures force businesses to resort to shutdowns and layoffs more frequently than in the past; workers, thus, must re-train themselves for new careers. As a result of increased access and increased societal pressures, adults are more likely than ever before to find themselves in need of additional education. Distance education appears to be in a unique position to serve the needs of any of these newcomers, which include working adults, "second-chancers" who have a history of educational shortcomings, and others who can not or will not participate in the conventional college classroom. Before distance educators can learn how best to serve these students, however, it is important to know more about these various populations and the likelihood for their success in pursuing distance education. In this paper, a theoretical framework of success in distance education based n the work of Knowles (1980), Sheets - Page 5 Knox (1977), and Coldeway (1986) is presented. his framework is then used to assist in interpreting research in three related areas: descriptive research on distance education participants' characteristics; comparisons of distance students and conventional students; and studies of student characteristics as they relate to persistence in distance education courses and programs. The paper concludes with a discussion of possible future directions in research. A Framework For Understanding Student Characteristics Distance education literature parallels much of the adult education literature generally in that it contains numerous studies of student characteristics, especially as they pertain to participation. Such emphasis is not surprising because distance learners, like most adult learners, are voluntary participants. Having knowledge about the phenomena related to participation is vital for the formation of theory and the direction of practice in adult education in general (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). Likewise, understanding distance education participants, their reasons for involvement in distance education, and the outcomes of their participation is important, not only to explain and predict the participation event itself, but also to determine consequences related to program planning, policy formation, and other aspects of educational practice. The writings of adult learning theorists provide a framework which may be used to understand the potential relationships between distance student characteristics and outcomes of learning experiences. For example, Knowles (1980) presented a model for predicting behavioral outcomes which showed that a behavior was influenced by a combination of the learner's needs plus the learner's situation and personal characteristics. He further emphasized educators' involvement in program planning, learning activities, and program evaluation which should proceed by understanding the learner and emphasizing is or her needs. Knox (1977) also recognized the interplay of various forces as he related them to a developmental-stage orientation of adult life. He considered several forces as significant: the individual's contextual situation; performance in family, work, and community roles; physical condition; personality; and earning interests and abilities. These factors influenced each other and were also dependent on the individual's stage of development. The combination of personal characteristics and developmental stage in turn impacted decisions made by the adult. Sheets - Page 6 The uniqueness of the distance education student's situation is the focus of a theoretical model proposed by Keegan (1986). The separation of student and teacher imposed by distance removes a vital "link" of communication between these two parties. The link must be restored through overt institutional efforts so that the teaching-learning transaction may be "reintegrated" Keegan, 1986, p. 120). Citing Tinto (1975), Keegan hypothesized that students who did not receive adequate reintegration measures would be less likely to experience complete academic and social integration into institutional life. Consequently, such students would be more likely to drop out. The importance of individual characteristics and needs in the distance education process may be observed in a model of distance education success proposed by Coldeway (1986). In this model, "success" is a function of the combination of four factors: personal characteristics, including contextual factors of background and experience; motivations for enrollment; institutional factors, such as pacing requirements and delivery methods; and course factors, including course design and delivery. In this model, success may be measured in different ways. It may be determined by students' persistence in courses and programs; however, it is also possible to measure success according to individual growth and development. Coldeway's (1986) model, when considered in light of the more general concepts regarding adult needs and characteristics (Knox, 1977; Knowles, 1980), as well as Keegan's (1986) theoretical framework, may be used to enhance understanding regarding the results of studies about distance student characteristics. Although students' characteristics and needs may not account completely for success in a distance education course or program, according to Coldeway's (1986) model, it is possible that these actors contribute to success. Additionally, knowledge about student characteristics may help in understanding who is likely to participate in distance education and, conversely, why others choose not to participate. Descriptive Studies Of Student Characteristics Demographic studies Numerous studies of the demographic data of distance education students have been performed. Table 1 summarizes findings in a number of open universities regarding the age, gender, and work status of students. According to this table, distance education students, Sheets - Page 7 generally, are at least 24 years old, and the vast majority is employed. The ratio of male to female students varies, probably due to cultural differences and dissimilarities in secondary education between countries. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Table 1 Students Enrolled in Open Universities By Age, Gender, and Work Status (Percent) _________________________________________________________________________ Massey U. Evrymn U. Athabasca OU of British FeU UNED (N.Zland.) (Israel) (Canada) Nthlds OU (FRG) (Spain) Age 24 or older 85 69 67 92 95 73 76 Male 37 47 39 67 56 75 70 Female 63 53 61 33 44 25 30 Employed 83 NA 86 73 81 67 88 _______________________________________________________________________ Explanations and Sources: Massey University, New Zealand (Tremaine & Owen, 1984) Everyman's University, Israel (Guri, 1986) Athabasca University, Canada (Peruniak, 1983) Open University of the Netherlands (Boon & van Enckevort, 1987) British Open University (Rumble, 1983) Fernuniversitat: Gesamthochuschule, Federal Republic of Germany (Rumble, 1983) Universidad Nacional de Educacio'n a Distancia, Spain (Rumble, 1983) NA: Not available - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - In the United States, a survey of students in telecourses offered through community colleges disclosed that about two-thirds were women, and about half of the students were at least thirty years old. Over half had at least one dependent, and two-thirds were married. Eighty percent were employed, and over half of these were working full-time while pursuing their studies (Brey & Grigsby, 1984). In general, these trends match what one would expect to find in Sheets - Page 8 overall community college enrollments (Ziggerell, 1986). However, Brey and Grigsby's (1984) survey also revealed that 40% of the telecourse students surveyed were simultaneously enrolled full-time in on-campus classes. This finding is consistent with a trend noted by Coldeway (1986). Educational Background Throughout the world, the educational background of distance students ranges from less than high school to completion of a university degree. Enrollments in which at least 25% of students have not completed high school or are otherwise unqualified for conventional university admission included Everyman's University (Guri, 1986) and Massey University (Tremaine & Owen, 1984). On the other hand, 20% of U.S. tele-course students had at least an associate degree (Brey & Grigsby,1984). The Student Population of Open University of the Netherlands (Netherlands OU) presented an interesting paradox in terms of academic preparation; while over 40% were ineligible to study at a conventional Dutch university, just over 40% had a higher education diploma (Boon & van Enckervort, 1987). New student enrollment trends were even more puzzling; in 1984, when he Netherlands OU opened, 37% of the students had a higher education degree. In 1987, 53% of new students held a higher education diploma. Boon and van Enckervort (1987) speculated that when the Netherlands OU opened, there was a larger potential population of persons who wanted a "second chance" at higher education. Over time, that backlog diminished, until the Netherlands OU is increasingly used by more well- educated students for continuing education. Overall, descriptive findings regarding demographics and educational attainment of distance education students provide information about who participates in distance education. However, such studies alone cannot disclose what factors, if any, are related to educational outcomes of distance education participants. Comparisons Of Distance And Conventional Students Comparisons of distance and conventional students provide information about students that is useful in determining who is likely to participate in each system. Also, comparisons of these two systems frequently include discussions about motivations for participation in distance education as opposed to conventional study. Sheets - Page 9 Distance students have been compared with traditional students in terms of one or more factors, including reference for structure, self-confidence, and perception of the instructor. Kahl and Cropley (1986) found that German distance students had a significantly greater preference for structure than did fulltime, conventional students. The same distance students also demonstrated significantly less self-confidence than did their conventional counterparts. Knapper (1988) agreed that distance students were likely to have insecurities about learning. Self-confidence and a preference for structure may be negatively related; that is, the less self-confidence one has, the more he or she prefers structure (Kahl & Cropley, 1986). Alternatively, students may prefer structure because it allows for faster, more efficient study (Kahl & Cropley, 1986; Knapper, 1988) and thus a quicker payoff in terms of affective or skills-related benefits (Kahl & Cropley, 1986). Generally, researchers have acknowledged the broad life experiences that older students bring to higher education situations. However, there appears to be disagreement as to what these students' reactions will be in the distance education environment. Referring to telecourse students, Curran (1987) warned that these students will be more critical than conventional students, and more likely to challenge the instructor. On the other hand, Knapper (1988) believed that distance students may overvalue the instructor as an expert and authority figure. Motives for studying at a distance as opposed to studying conventionally relate to both the impracticality of attending a conventional institution and preference for the distance education system itself. For example, Australian students said they chose distance education over conventional education because of remoteness from a conventional university (Williams & Sharma, 1988; Stanford and others, 1980); the cost of commuting to a conventional university was also a factor influencing choice (Stanford and others, 1980). Both Australian and U.S. students cited scheduling conflicts between conventional classes and other activities as a reason for choosing distance education (Brey & Grigsby, 1984; Stanford & others, 1980; Williams & Sharma, 1988). Other factors that may account for the choice of distance education over conventional education include reference for distance education (Stanford & others, 1980; Williams & Sharma,1988) and more liberal admission policies of distance institutions as opposed to conventional institutions (Stanford & others, 1980). Sheets - Page 10 The above findings suggest that some comparisons of distance and conventional students may yield useful information about participation, especially regarding participants' time constraints and personal preferences for distance education. However, the same findings are limited in at least two ways. First, the studies were not designed to determine whether these factors make a difference in success in a distance education setting. Second, some findings confound the characteristics of distance students in particular with those of adult students in general. For example, the lack of self- confidence and preference for structure noted for distance students (Kahl & Cropley, 1986) actually may be present in many adult students who are returning to education after a long absence. The disagreement on distance students' reactions to instructors (Knapper, 1988; Curran, 1987) also may reflect opinions about adult students in general. Such confusion is not surprising; according to at least one source, there is no difference in personal characteristics between distance students and other adult students (Will'en, 1982, cited by Keegan, 1986). To control such confounding, studies which compare conventional students to distance students should ensure that groups are similar on factors such as age, work status, number of hours enrolled, and length of time since last enrollment. Student Characteristics and Persistence As is evident from the research reviewed above, descriptive studies are limited in the information they can add to the distance education literature. To further develop a theoretical base of distance education, data on participants should be linked to other variables of interest. A factor of interest to the higher education community in general, and especially to distance educators (Coldeway, 1986; Keegan, 1986) is that of persistence. By linking data on learners to factors of course or program completion, it is possible to attempt to explain or predict outcomes in the distance education setting. At the same time, the study of persistence helps distance educators improve programs and address accountability issues. Data on students and persistence may be divided into two main categories (Gibson, 1990): personal factors, including demographic data, educational attainment, learning styles, and motivation; and external factors, consisting of post-enrollment student behaviors and institutional interventions. Research within each category is reviewed below. Sheets - Page 11 Personal Factors Demographic data. Older students have been found to have higher course completion rates (Rekkedal, 1983) as well as higher degree completion rates in graduate programs (Langenbach & Korhonen, 1988) and undergraduate programs (Langenbach & Korhonen, 1986, cited by Coggins, 1988). However, Coggins (1988) found no significant differences related to age regarding bachelor degree completions. Occupational status of learners has been found to be insignificant when related to program completions in several studies (Langenbach & Korhonen, 1988; Langenbach & Korhonen, 1986, cited by Coggins, 1988; Coggins, 1988). However, Carr and Ledwith (1980, cited in Cookson, 1989) found that the course dropout rate of housewives was less than half the overall rate, while the attrition ate for those who listed manual trades as an occupation was 50% higher than the overall rate. Among other demographic variables, both gender and marital status have been found to be insignificant in persistence studies (Langenbach & Korhonen, 1988; Langenbach & Korhonen, 1986, cited by Coggins, 1988; Coggins, 1988). The ambiguous results cited above are not suprising; according to Boshier (1988, cited by Gibson, 1990), it is possible that less than ten percent of the variance regarding the prediction of persistence is accounted for by demographic variables. Academic Factors. Educational level prior to enrollment in a distance course or program has been found to be significantly related to persistence (Rekkedal, 1983; Coggins, 988; Langenbach & Korhonen, 1986, cited by Coggins, 1988), as has length of time since last educational enrollment (Rekkedal, 1983; Coggins, 1988) or since completing the bachelor's degree (Langenbach & Korhonen,1988). Several researchers have found that students who had prior experience with nontraditional education were more likely to persist than those with exclusively conventional experience (Rekkedal, 1983; Langenbach Korhonen, 1988; Coldeway and Spencer, 1980, cited in Coldeway, 1986). Learners having high prior academic achievement and recent educational experience may be more likely to persist because they have become "lifelong learners" who are accustomed to devoting leisure time to educational activities. Alternatively, these factors, plus prior experience with nontraditional education, Sheets - Page 12 may indicate that the amount, timing, and type of experience influence persistence (Coggins, 1988). Motivation and learning styles. There are inconclusive findings regarding the role of motivation in course completion. For example, in a study of 200 correspondence students, Sung (1986, cited in Cookson, 1989) used a multiple linear regression model and found that motivational factors were not significant; rather, "perception of program" and the student's perception of is individual life situation accounted for 19% and 21% of the variance, respectively. On the other hand, Donehower (1968), in an early study of University of Nevada correspondence students, reported that those who enrolled for college credit or teacher certification purposes were more likely to complete a course than other students. In a first-time Canadian university telecourse aimed at non-degree registered nurses who wished to obtain the bachelor's degree, only one out of 37 students withdrew. In a second course which attracted 81 students, only two withdrew (Carver and MacKay, 1986). In a descriptive study of students in a course offered by the British National Extension College, Rouse and Lewis (1984) found that a group of preministerial students completed the course at a rate nearly 50% higher than the other students in the course combined. The authors attributed the higher completion rate to the regular meetings the students held as a group; the contacts they ad with the group coordinator and their local clergy; and their vocational calling. Persisters in bachelor degree programs were more likely than nonpersisters to expect high academic performance; conversely, non-persisters were more likely o expect "C" grades. However, these two groups did not differ in terms of other learning style measurements (Coggins, 1988; Langenbach & Korhonen, 1986, cited by Coggins, 1988). The "needs" portion of Knowles' (1980) behavioral model may be translated as "motivations." Both this model and the model of student success proposed by Coldeway (1986) indicate that motivation is quite important in determining success in distance education courses and programs. Coldeway (1986) indicates that motivational factors, combined with institutional pacing and delivery factors, have a high correlation with success. Environmental Factors Student behavior following enrollment. Some studies have found significant relationships between the behavior of distance students following enrollment and course completion. Coldeway and Spencer (1980, cited by Sheets - Page 13 Coldeway, 1986) found a positive correlation between students who completed the first unit of a course and course completions. Peruniak (1983) determined through a case study of Athabasca University students, all of whom had some previous postsecondary education, that those who completed their courses studied more hours per week and studied a longer time during an examination period than the "withdrawers." The withdrawers not only studied less, but they tended to study the same amount of time each week, regardless of examination periods. Course completers also initiated contact with the university nearly four times more frequently than withdrawers. Wong and Wong (1978-1979, cited by Coggins, 1990) have indicated that the submission of the first assignment may indicate a student's commitment to complete a course. Study habits and institutional contacts would also appear to indicate course commitment. In terms of Coldeway's (1986) model, these factors may demonstrate the extent of a student's motivation; subsequent success (in terms of scoring well on assignments and examinations) may serve to increase one's motivation to complete the course. Institutional policies and interventions. Institutional policies and interventions in the distance education process may affect course completions. Coldeway (1986) studied completion rates at three different institutions for students who were enrolled in the same course which was delivered employing the same methods. He found that completion rates at one university, which used pacing techniques, were more than twice as high as completion rates at the other two institutions, in which the courses were open- ended. Another study used Keegan's (1986) theoretical framework of reintegration of he teaching act to determine whether student persistence and achievement were influenced by institutional support in establishing study groups. An experiment yielded insignificant findings (Amundsen & Bernard, 1989). Rekkedal (1983) performed two experimental studies of institutional intervention which had significant results. In one study, students who were mailed encouraging post cards and letters following their failure to submit assignments responded at a rate of 46%, versus a 31% response rate for the control group. In a second study, assignments of the experimental group were graded by an onsite tutor; accordingly, turnaround times were a median of 5.6 days, versus the 8.3 day median for the control group. Because of the Sheets - Page 14 decreased turnaround times, completion rates in the experimental group were 91%, while the rate of completion in the control group was only 69%. Some distance education researchers have attempted to adapt an integrative model of attrition using one proposed by Tinto(1975) which predicted attrition of conventional students. In this longitudinal model, student background characteristics influence the way in which a student interacts with the college environment. These interactions affect the way the student integrates with college on two levels, academic and social. Throughout the college years, the extent of a student's academic and social integration affects his or her decisions regarding whether to persist or drop out. The Tinto (1975) model has been widely cited and tested in studies of conventional students (Bean, 1982, cited by Kember, 1989), and has also been used in a number of distance education studies (see Kember, 1989). Kember (1989, p. 284) identified the Tinto model as "the best starting point" in terms of devising an attrition model for distance education. However, the model requires modification for the separation of teacher and learner and the separation of learner and learning group, factors which Keegan (1986) identifies as differentiating distance education from conventional education. Taylor and others (1986, cited by Kember, 1989) used Tinto's model to explain the relationship between institutional interventions and attrition; however, they found no consistent relationship between these factors. Sweet (1986, cited by Cookson, 1989) used Tinto's model to relate student characteristics to academic and social integration following enrollment. His results indicated that the model is able to explain a significant amount of variance in persistence. However, Kember (1989) criticized the Sweet study for failure to modify any of the Tinto model's variables according to the requirements of distance education. Kember (1989) attempted to modify Tinto's model to incorporate some of the unique characteristics and situations of distance education students. Among the factors relevant to distance education were the academic environment and its integration, and social and work environment and its integration. The academic environment consisted of the study materials and academic and administrative integrations. Academic integration occurred on two planes: normative congruence, or the relationship between the student and the study materials; and collective affiliation, which included not only the writing style used in the study packet, but also the frequency and nature of contact Sheets - Page 15 between the student and the institution. Kember replaced Tinto's integration of the conventional student into campus life with the integration between the distance education student and his work, home and social commitments. From the standpoint of theory, the study of institutional interventions is important in several ways. Communication between learner and institution is considered the foundation of Holmberg's (1986) theory of guided didactic conversation. Contact between student and teacher may occur through written correspondence, telephone, or telecommunication through mainframe or personal computer networks. Communication is to transcend simply the correction of assignments to encourage "feelings of belonging, personal relations, and RAPPORT between students and the supporting organization" (Holmberg, 1986, p. 109). Rekkedal's (1983) studies of follow-up of potential non-completers and improvement of grading turnaround appear to coincide with Holmberg's theory. Even so, a distance education student's success is probably associated with variables in addition to his or her communication with the sponsoring institution. Kember's (1989) adaptation of Tinto's (1975) longitudinal model of attrition recognized the importance of not only the student's academic integration, but also the integration between the student and the portions of his or her environment representing work, home, and social obligations. Garrison and Baynton's model of the distance learning transaction (1987, cited by Gibson, 1990) may recognize the influence of some of these environmental components. The model considers learner control as it is influenced through the balance of three factors: independence, power, and support. Independence refers to the learner's ability to choose from alternative learning objectives, activities, and evaluation methods; it is closely related to Moore's (1973) concept of learner autonomy. Power is measured by the student's ability to take responsibility for the learning process. Support includes learning materials and facilities, experts outside the institution, and other environmental factors such as emotional support and financial support. It appears possible that the control a student could achieve over support factors relative to the independence and power components of this model could in turn e related to decisions regarding persistence. CONCLUSION Clearly, many research opportunities exist in the area Sheets - Page 16 of student success in distance education. First, however, it is important to determine the relevant questions for research. Future descriptive studies perhaps should focus on personal and situational factors that go beyond the traditional questions of gender, age, and educational background. Furthermore, as noted above, comparisons of distance students with other adult students may not yield much useful information (Will'et, 1982, cited by Keegan, 1986). Further studies of the relationship between various student-related factors and persistence certainly appear warranted. Gibson (1990) notes a number of questions to be asked regarding these relationships, such as the influence of learning styles, resources, and the maintenance of student motivation, respectively, on student outcomes. Finally, models of attrition such as the one proposed by Kember (1989) should be studied empirically, with particular attention toward the roles that institutional intervention and other environmental factors play in determining course completion. The role of research is not, as Feasley (1983) states, "... to identify those students who will not be successful in distance education and to persuade them to choose the classroom instead" (p. 8). Rather, for most distance students, learning at a distance is the only alternative (Coldeway, 1986). Future research should attempt to answer questions about the role of both institutional interventions and other environmental factors in the success of distance education participants. REFERENCES Amundsen, C., & Bernard, R. (1989). Institutional support for peer contact in distance education: an empirical investigation. DISTANCE EDUCATION, 10(1), 7-27. Boon, J., & van Enckervort, G. (1987). Studying at the Open University of the Netherlands, developments 1984-1987. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 285 051) Brey, R., & Grigsby, C. (1984). Annenberg/CPB Project: a study of telecourse students (executive summary). Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Public Broadcasting. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 280 439) Carver, J., & MacKay, R.C. (1986). Interactive television brings university classes to the home and workplace. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL Sheets - Page 17 COMMUNICATION, 15(1), 19-28. Coggins, C.C. (1988). Preferred learning styles and their impact on completion of external degree programs. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, 2(1), 25-37. Coldeway, D.O. (1986). Learner characteristics and success. In I. Mugridge & D. Kaufman (Eds.), DISTANCE EDUCATION IN CANADA (pp. 81-87). London: Croom Helm. Cookson, P.S. (1989). Research on learners and learning in distance education: a review. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 3(2), 22-34. Curran, C.C. (1987). Dealing with the distant learner as parttime learner. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE, 27, 240-246. Darkenwald, G.G., & Merriam, S.B. (1982). ADULT EDUCATION: FOUNDATIONS OF PRACTICE. New York: Harper and Row. Donehower, G. (1968). Variables associated with correspondence study enrollments at the University of Nevada 1963-1965. Master's thesis, University of Nevada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 016-925) Feasley, C. E. (1983) SERVING LEARNERS AT A DISTANCE: A GUIDE TO PROGRAM PRACTICES. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Research Report No. 5. Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Higher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 238 350) Gibson, C.C. (1990). Learners and learning: a discussion of selected research. In M.G. Moore (Ed.), CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN AMERICAN DISTANCE EDUCATION. New York: Pergamon. Guri, S. (1986) Equality and excellence in higher education - is it possible? HIGHER EDUCATION, 15(1-2), 59-71. Holmberg, B. (1986). GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION. London: Croom Helm. Kahl, T.N., & Cropley, A.J. (1986). Face-to-face versus distance learning: psychological consequences and practical implications. DISTANCE EDUCATION, 7(1), 38-48. Sheets - Page 18 Keegan, D. (1986). THE FOUNDATIONS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION. London: Croom Helm. Kember, D. (1989). A longitudinal process model of drop-out from distance education. JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 60, 278-301. Knapper, C.K. (1988). Lifelong learning and distance education. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, 2(1), 63-72. Knowles, M.S. (1980). THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION: FROM PEDAGOGY TO ANDRAGOGY. Chicago: Follett. Knox, A.B. (1977). ADULT LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Langenbach, M., and Korhonen, L. (1988). Persisters and nonpersisters in a graduate level, nontraditional, liberal education program. ADULT EDUCATION QUARTERLY, 38, 136-148. Moore, M. (1973). Toward a theory of independent learning and teaching. JOURNAL OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 44, 661-679. Peruniak, G. (1983). Interactive perspectives in distance education: a case study. DISTANCE EDUCATION, 4(1), 63-79. Rekkedal, T. (1983). Enhancing student progress in Norway. TEACHING AT A DISTANCE, (23)(Summer), 19-24. Rouse, S., & Lewis, R. (1984). Study skills at a distance - ten years on. BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, 15(1), 24-32. Rumble, G. (1983). Distance teaching universities in Europe. HIGHER EDUCATION IN EUROPE, 18(3), 5-14. Stanford, B.K. and others (1980). DISTANCE EDUCATION: OCCASIONAL PAPER NUMBER 9, SUBMISSION TO COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO EDUCATION IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (Report No. ISBN- 0-724309154-7; TAPE-OP-9). Adelaide, Australia: Committee of Enquiry into Education in South Australia. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 208 156) Tinto, V. (1975). Drop-out from higher education: a theoretical synthesis of recent research. REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, 45, 89-125. Sheets - Page 19 Tremaine, M., & Owen, J. (1984). The female majority: women who study extramurally. TEACHING AT A DISTANCE, (25)(Summer), 45-50. Williams, S., & Sharma, P. (1988). Language acquisition by distance education: an Australian survey. DISTANCE EDUCATION, 9(1), 127-146. Zigerell, J. J. (1986). A GUIDE TO TELECOURSES AND THEIR USES. Costa Mesa, CA: Coast Community College District. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 280 439) NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 ________________________________________ WORKING TOWARD MORE EFFECTIVE ADULT CHRISTIAN EDUCATION: A CASE OF YOUNGSVILLE BAPTIST CHURCH by Robert C. Ballance Ed.D student North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina ABSTRACT Youngsville Baptist Church's Sunday School Program, its only avenue for adult Christian education, is not meeting the faith-related educational needs of its congregants, nor is it attracting new participants. This paper represents the author's attempt to analyze and understand the reasons the program is not fulfilling those needs. Recommendations for intentional changes in the adult Christian education at Youngsville Baptist Church are included. INTRODUCTION Churches and synagogues are institutions of education because they serve as places of instruction for faith- Ballance -Page 20 related matters. The primary avenue for such faith- related adult education in most Protestant churches is the century old institution, Sunday School. At Youngsville Baptist Church, the Sunday School program for children and youth is well-structured. Faith education for the church's adults, however, is not. While Sunday morning worship attendance for the congregation during the last several years has increased dramatically, attendance in Sunday School for all adult age groupings in the church is poor and continues to decline. Over the last several decades, decreasing attendance and interest in church, whether it be confirmation, church school classes or worship, particularly within adult age groupings, has made it clear to many religious educators that the church is not fulfilling its educational mission and purpose (Apps, 1972). The adult Sunday School program of Youngsville Baptist Church is in such a dilemma: Sunday School is available, but few adults participate. THE SITUATION Background Youngsville Baptist Church was established in 1880. Its constitution contains the congregation's governing principles. That document's only statement, however, regarding the church's objectives and responsibilities with regard to education of its members reads: "This body shall be a church to help people experience a growing knowledge of God and humankind" (p. 1). The church's primary avenue for generating that growing knowledge has been its Sunday School program, which has met on Sunday mornings for the past 111 years. Currently, adult class groupings for the Sunday School at the church include the traditional Senior Adult Ladies' Class, Senior Adult Men's Class, and the Adult I Class--a class of mostly middle-aged, married adults. All of these are lecture-type, "banking" classes (Freire, 1990, p. 58). Finally, there is the Adult II Class, a class for any adult, age 18 and over, single or married, who prefers a discussion-type format. Throughout its 111-year history, the church has maintained an average total membership of 200, with a Sunday School enrollment average of 130. From its inception in 1881 until 1965, the average weekly Sunday School attendance was 102. However, with the beginning of a downward trend in 1965, Sunday School attendance Ballance -Page 21 since then has averaged only 55. Of that 55, the average number present age 18 and above each Sunday has been 44, representing only 22% of its total membership. Moreover, rarely do new participants attend the classes. Specific Concerns An evaluative study of the current Sunday School program was conducted. Inactive members were interviewed to determine why they were not participating. This aspect of the study revealed these inactives to be mostly young adults who were recent college graduates or middle- to senior-aged adults who tended to be more inclusive and allowing in their thinking than current older adult Sunday School participants. Among the repeated reasons given for their non-participation were: "I don't have time," "It doesn't meet my needs," or "Sunday School is for children." Those adults who were participating in the Sunday School program also were interviewed to determine their reasons for participating. The data gathered indicated that this small minority of the congregation are theologically and socially conservative, mostly older adults, and not particularly interested in change of any kind in the structure of the Sunday School program in spite of their knowledge that few outside their age grouping attend. From the interviews, it was discovered that the faithful participation of this minority of older adults resulted from the Sunday School program's nonthreatening routine and sameness throughout the years. In addition, studies of attendance records kept by various secretaries of the Sunday School program over the years at the Youngsville Church, along with interviews of current Sunday School leadership, revealed some disturbing factors: (a) evaluation of this adult Sunday morning educational program had never been done; (b) the church's mission/purpose statement offered little direction; (c) leadership for the Sunday morning church school had never been carefully selected or trained; (d) teachers in the Sunday School classes were usually assigned their positions by the church's Nominating Committee each year without consideration to those skills needed for successful teaching; (e) teacher training and support had never been considered or offered; and, (f) Southern Baptist curriculum materials had been used without evaluation. Ballance -Page 22 PLANNED CHANGE The Dilemma This study revealed that the adult education program at Youngsville Baptist Church-- its sole component being the Sunday morning Sunday School--had stagnated. In addition, it was discovered that those currently attending the Sunday School were mostly older adults. From the interviews, it also became obvious that these older adults who were participating came to this educational experience not as much for learning as they did out of a life-long loyalty to an unchanging program. For many of those not participating, particularly young adults, Sunday School was seen as a program that had not kept pace with the changing times, needs, and interests of the congregation's majority of members. During the interview process, a number of young adults in particular described this program as superficial, indicating that it offered them no challenge of thought. In order to make the program challenging for all adults, planned change seemed essential (Boone, 1985). The Change Process According to Boone (1985), in order for the change agent to enable successful program planning for change to take place, a series of considerations must be made. First, "a thorough understanding of and commitment to the mission, philosophy, functions, structure, processes, and culture of the organization" by the change agent is needed (1985, p. 2). One of the first, specific, change-directed goals for this project, then, had to do with the explicit expansion and fine tuning of the mission/purpose statement in the church's constitution concerning education. In the creation of that new mission/purpose statement, objectives were made clear, precise and meaningful (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964). Next, important to an analysis of any adult education organization and its publics is the concept of linkage. In this project, mapping, an important element of linkage, included a consideration of social structure and social stratification (Loomis, 1960). Attention to social differentiation was also useful (Bertrand, 1967) Finally, a cultural analysis was done (Spicer, 1952). These steps surfaced unspoken class and cultural differences among current and potential participants in the adult Sunday School program of the church. For example, the study revealed that the range of education for adults currently in the church ran from elderly Ballance -Page 23 members who never had the opportunity to finish high school to those with masters and professional degrees in medicine and law. In addition, there were those with minimal financial resources, as well as those with assets that would qualify them as middle and upper class. Such a mapping of the Youngsville congregation's various publics and significant others revealed a wide span of ages, socio-economic backgrounds, and cultural differences not realized earlier. This study revealed that the majority of the congregation is made up of retired adults. Those individuals who participate in the Sunday School program indicated that they were satisfied with the adult Sunday School program as it was. At the same time, however, the study revealed that many adults who had not been active participants were not satisfied. While they offered no specific suggestions, these unsatisfied individuals cited needs for thorough change in the church's current educational program offerings for adults. They complained that Sunday School focussed too much on biblical history and theological abstraction and too little on dealing with personal problems, human need and social justice issues. Publics discerned in this mapping included various groupings: 10% of the congregation are elderly, frail, and unable to actively participate (mostly age 75+); 40% are active retirees, with the majority of these being widows (age 65+); 25% are middle- to senior-aged persons, mostly married couples whose children have grown up and moved away (ages 45-65); 10% are married or divorced/single adults (ages 35-45); 7.5% are younger adults with young children (ages 20-35); and 7.5% are youth (ages 10-18). Significant others included family members and co-workers of the publics named above, long-term residents of the community currently not active members of a church or synagogue, as well as the growing numbers of new residents to the area not yet active as well. While these figures reveal the diversity of age groupings within the congregation, they also reveal that the majority of the congregants are senior adults. It is this majority which makes up the current Sunday School program. The middle- to senior-aged adults (25% of the congregation), adults 35-45 (10% of the congregation), and young adults 18-35 (7.5% of the congregation) make up a large segment of the congregation that does not feel the adult Sunday School program meets their faith-related educational needs. This is too large of a percentage for church leaders to ignore in program planning. Ballance -Page 24 In order for the change agent to bring about needed change, he or she must understand and relate properly to the leaders of the group (Boone, 1985). Identifying and interfacing with leaders in the congregation, then, was the proper next step. Attention had to be given to various types of leaders. At Youngsville Baptist Church, positional leaders (Boone, 1985), those in positions of authority to actually make key decisions regarding the church's adult education program, included members of the diaconate, the Sunday School superintendent, Sunday School faculty members, and the pastor. Opinion leaders included those persons in the congregation who did not hold key leadership positions, but who had some control over opinions in the congregation and were influential in either the formal or informal decision-making processes (Boone, 1985). Collaboration with all these leaders, with the current program's class groupings, and with those not participating in the Sunday School, including inactive members and new-comers to the community, was the next step. Translating and incorporating a way to fulfill those needs expressed during collaboration into a planned program for implementation came next in the form of recommendations by the change agent and the church's leaders. RECOMMENDATIONS The process outlined above prompted the change agent and lay leaders of the congregation to offer the following list of recommendations for this specific congregation. These recommendations were offered based on their experience with the congregation as its senior minister and experienced lay leaders. 1) Convert from traditional class groupings of a traditional "Sunday School" (such as senior adult men/women, and middle-aged couples) to a group-, interest- or needs-based organization. Groups would form and continually reform on the basis of mutual interests or needs, as interests and needs change and evolve in different life-stages (such as youth, young adulthood, middle-age, retirement) and following significant life events (such as the birth of a child, divorce, the death of a spouse/parent). 2) Similar to those in academic settings, courses should run on a fall/spring semester basis with two shorter summer sessions offered. The study of a particular subject or biblical book would take place within those semester/summer periods. 3) Courses need no longer be bound to a predetermined curriculum. Education by the pastor on curriculum alternatives should be presented to Ballance -Page 25 interested groups. If a class has able researchers willing to do the work, curriculum development for special studies might be done by those individuals themselves prior to the semester/term the course is to be offered. 4) Budget support for special elective courses requiring individuals with special skills/insights that only professionals outside the church membership might possess should be provided by the church. Courses on subjects such as "Issues in Death and Dying," "What the Bible says About Euthanasia," "Caring for the Environment," etc., could be offered. Current events, issues, interests and the needs of members should inform decisions/plans for what courses should be offered. 5) While there would be occasional exceptions, courses should no longer be lecture style. Instead, each course offering should be lead by a facilitator for a more group-centered learning experience that will enable greater individual participation and learning. In addition, appropriate facilitators would be suggested by the group itself and not assigned by the church's Nominating Committee as tradition has dictated. This would involve advanced planning in courses to be offered and facilitators' availability. 6) Leadership and training opportunities for facilitators should be encouraged, with those opportunities being financed by the church. Developing a team of able facilitators would be critical for program continuation and success. The possibility of remuneration for all facilitators should be considered. 7) Meeting times need no longer be exclusive to Sunday morning. Alternative meeting times and places should be encouraged, but well publicized so those interested could make note of those alternative times and places. 8) Evaluation, both formative and summative, of both intended and unintended outcomes, should become a continuing part of the programming process. Such evaluation shall be defined as that process of judging the worth or value of the program by comparing evidence as to what the program is with criteria as to what the program should be (Steele, 1970, cited in Boone). Feedback for program revisions, continuing organization renewal, and accountability of leaders, facilitators and learners to one another and to the congregation as a body would be essential to the continuing success of this new program. 9) Since it does not currently exist, an Education Committee consisting of the pastor, a director of Christian Education--a qualified, capable and willing lay person elected by the congregation to assist the pastor in supervising and coordinating this new program--and at least five others who have a sincere Ballance -Page 26 interest in adult Christian education, should be formed. They will give this new program direction, offer encouragement, make suggestions, coordinate environment and curriculum needs, deal with problems, criticisms and conflict and oversee and promote effective continuing evaluation as noted above. 10) Aggressive publicity, in-church promotion and community visitation would serve as a means for outreach and participation by current members as well as those not currently active in any faith development organization. Having been accepted by the church body, these recommendations will be implemented in the fall of 1992. CONCLUSION This author believes such a faith-related program for adults in a congregation like Youngsville with a membership of 200 is possible and could be very successful, likely evoking considerable growth in faith-related matters and in levels of participation. Such a program, however, would likely experience some difficulties. The program (a) would not be without its critics, both within the congregation and without; (b) would demand much more time, attention, expertise and funds than the current program; (c) could not be offered and delivered without unforseen problems arising; and, (d) would not come about without conflict among some church members. In addition, a good deal more research in curriculum design, development, and evaluation would be required of the change agent (i.e., the pastor). The Christian church, particularly the smaller churches with troubled adult educational programs, such as Youngsville Baptist Church, need to be more creative in their educational planning, programming, and evaluation. This author believes this particular congregation will benefit from such a creative and innovative adult, faith-related program as outlined above. When implemented, it likely will bring about considerable faith-related growth among its own members and probably would be more attractive to new participants as well. References Apps, J. W. (1972). HOW TO IMPROVE ADULT EDUCATION IN YOUR CHURCH. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House. Bertrand, A. L. (1967). BASIC SOCIOLOGY: AN Ballance -Page 27 INTRODUCTION TO THEORY AND METHODS. New York: Appleton/Century/Crofts. Boone, E. J. (1985). DEVELOPING PROGRAMS IN ADULT EDUCATION. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. CONSTITUTION OF YOUNGSVILLE BAPTIST CHURCH, Adopted 1883. Freire, P. (1990). PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED. New York: Continuum Publishing Company. Krathwohl, D. R., B. S. Bloom & D. B. Masia. (1964). TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. HANDBOOK II-- EFFECTIVE DOMAIN. New York: David McKay Company.Loomis, C. P. (1960). SOCIAL SYSTEMS. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrond. Spicer.E. H. (ed.) (1952). PROBLEMS IN TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Steele, S. (1970). Program evaluation--a broader definition. JOURNAL OF EXTENSION, 8, 5-18. Tyler, R. (1971). BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION. Chicago: University of Chicago. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 _______________________________________________________ BOOK REVIEW by Susan Slusarski Gilligan, C. (1982). IN A DIFFERENT VOICE: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. A turning point in developmental theory transpired in 1982 with the publication of IN A DIFFERENT VOICE: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT by Carol Gilligan. Until that time, most developmental studies had been conducted by male researchers with male Slusarski - Page 28 subjects. Gilligan was "on the vanguard" (Boucouvalas & Krupp,1990, p. 189) of the movement to examine human development from women's perspectives. Over the past ten years, other researchers have examined the differences of development for men and women; for example, WOMEN'S WAYS OF KNOWING: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF, VOICE,AND MIND (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986) was "...inspired and informed" (p. xi) by Gilligan's work. Indeed, hearing woman's voice is part of the language of feminist researchers today. Adult educators, both scholars and practitioners, would benefit from first-hand reading of this influential work. Understanding human development is key to our effectiveness as adult educators, and Gilligan's IN A DIFFERENT VOICE provides readers the opportunity to critically examine their own assumptions about adult development. Moreover, the book provides the foundation for many research studies in gender issues and human development. By reading Gilligan's IN A DIFFERENT VOICE, adult educators interested in adult development can gain an understanding of the book's role in the thinking on gender differences and similarities in human development. Previous to its publication, developmental studies such as those by Kohlberg (1981) and Levinson (1978) had been conducted with men as subjects with the conclusions assumed to be applicable to all adults. Gilligan listened to the voices of women and men in three independent, longitudinal studies and heard, perhaps, a new truth about women's development. IN A DIFFERENT VOICE explores psychological theories of development and postulates real differences in the development of men and women and possible reasons for these differences. Gilligan's premise that men and women develop differently is based on ten years of research involving three different studies: a study of college students which explored identity and moral development, an abortion decision study which examined the role of conflict and experience in development, and a rights and responsibilities study which focused on conceptions of self and morality using hypothetical moral dilemmas. Gilligan's basic assumption is that the way people talk about their lives is significant. Analyzing the interviews from these studies, Gilligan noticed that men and women were talking differently about their lives. Yet, developmental theory at that time was based only on the responses of male subjects. Women would not necessarily fit this mold, not because their moral development was immature, but rather because they have a different perspective. The difference is Slusarski - Page 29 related to the social roles of men and women as they develop; while men tend to strive to separate from others and become autonomous, women seek a connectedness and a balance between responsibility to self and to others. Gilligan presents her thesis in six parts beginning with "Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle" (Chapter 1). Reviewing literature (Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard") as well as work by Freud, Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg, Gilligan suggests we have become "...accustomed ...to seeing life through men's eyes" (p.6). A problem in the development of theory has become a problem in understanding women's development. The reality is women have been the caregivers--"Woman's place in man's life cycle has been that of nurturer, caretaker, and helpmate" (p. 17). Men, to develop gender identity, Gilligan suggests, must separate from this cared-for role and become autonomous. To translate this into a developmental process for both men and women is erroneous. Women do not need to separate to develop gender identity but need to identify with the caregiver by connecting. Basing human development on men's development, then shortchanges women. In Chapter 2, "Images of Relationships," Gilligan develops her argument contrasting Freud's theory with the words of Ann and Jake, Karen and Jeffrey, and Claire. She identifies Freud's theory as problematic, as he was unable to delineate women's perspectives within his framework. She postulates the problem may not be that women do not fit in this framework, but rather that we need to be open to new interpretations of women's perceptions. For example, in the rights and responsibilities study, Jake "...constructs the dilemma as a mathematical formula" while Ann proceeds from "...a premise of connection" (p.37). One is not right and the other wrong; rather, Jake answers from a perspective of separation while Ann answers from a perspective of connectedness.And this "...primacy of separation or connection leads to different images of self and of relationships (p.38). Gilligan advises: These disparate visions in their tension reflect the paradoxical truths of human experience--that we know ourselves as separate only so far as we live in connection with others, and that we experience relationship only insofar as we differentiate other from self. (p.63) Thus, Gilligan proposes a shift in our interpretation of these differences in perception. Building on this basic social difference, Gilligan discusses the concept of self and morality in Chapter Slusarski - Page 30 3. Women see morality based on relationships, the care and concern for others. To women, "[t]he moral person is one who helps others; goodness is service, meeting one's obligations and responsibilities to others, if possible without sacrificing oneself" (p. 65-66). Unfortunately, models for moral development were derived using only male subjects, so women's responses score lower. For example, in applying Kohlberg's model (in which men were used as subjects) to women, women may score "failure in development" with their responses to Heinz's dilemma of obtaining medicine for his dying spouse. However, upon closer examination, the situation may resemble fitting a round peg into a square hole: women and men see Heinz's dilemma differently. For women, the context influences the problem, and Heinz's dilemma is one of caring and responsibility to others, not simply a question of justice. Round pegs are not "failures" if the hole is square. Gilligan's next chapter on "Crisis and Transition" explores women's moral development by analyzing interviews from the abortion decision study. Here the women are experiencing the ultimate moral dilemma: to choose either selfishness or responsibility to another, a "...conflict between self and other" (p. 70). As Piaget and Erickson agree, this type of conflict is the "...harbinger of growth" (p. 108). The women's comments provide excellent examples of changes in perspectives from selfishness to responsibility of these women in this small sample at this moment in history. Gilligan reaffirms women's need to connect: "life, however valuable in itself, can only be sustained by care in relationships" (p.127). In Chapter 5, "Women's Rights and Women's Judgment," Gilligan discusses the moral question of responsibility and choice and how for women: the opposition between selfishness and responsibility complicates the issue of choice, leaving them suspended between an ideal of selflessness and the truth of their own agency and needs. (p. 138) This tension, for example, between self-sacrifice and self-development is evident for Alison who was "[c]aught between the wish not to hurt others and the wish to be true to herself..." (p.140). As a result of the renewed consciousness of women's rights in the 1970s, the inclusion of the self as equal to the other gained footing. Where the ideal may be self-sacrifice, there is a recognition that the ethic of care applies to oneself as well. Women's moral development as the opposition of self and others eventually developed by some women in her study as a balance between responsibility to self and others. Slusarski - Page 31 In the last chapter, "Visions of Maturity," Gilligan concludes that there are differences in moral development between men and women. Therefore, it is inaccurate to base human development on studies conducted only with men. Much as Levinson did with THE SEASONS OF A MAN'S LIFE (1978), it is necessary to look independently at women's development in order to bring forth a theory that will encompass perspectives of both sexes. Gilligan challenges the reader with the need for further research: Among the most pressing items on the agenda for research on adult development is the need to delineate in women's own terms the experience of their adult life. (p.173) The importance of Gilligan's IN A DIFFERENT VOICE to the field of adult development has been well established. As she herself states, at a time when women are seeking equality in society, "the differences between the sexes are being rediscovered in the social sciences" (p.6). These differences will serve to enhance our understanding of overall human development, and through this understanding, to improve our effectiveness with the adult learners in our classes. An inevitable criticism of this work is the character of the samples on which Gilligan builds her premises. The samples in her studies were small and composed of groups not representative of the general population. Gilligan acknowledges this: her purpose was to encourage the development of psychological theories based on women's experiences, not to apply the results to the general population. Much as we would be amiss to find a woman morally immature by using Kohlberg's theory, we would also be incorrect to generalize to all women based on Gilligan's limited sample. Another limitation of the sample and a criticism of the study is one also directed toward the work of Kohlberg and Levinson: the study does not address cultural differences. Finally, a third criticism is that Gilligan persisted in proposing a hierarchical model of development based on similar principles to Kohlberg's premise. Perhaps women's moral development is not hierarchic; this is certainly an area for further research. In this work, Gilligan addresses other psychologists and the lay person. She does provide explanations of the theories of adult moral development, but often not with enough clarity to let the lay reader feel comfortable. I would have understood her points better if I had a prior grasp of the theories of Freud, Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg, as well as some of the earlier works in the field related to the psychology of Slusarski - Page 32 women, for example, Jean Baker Miller's TOWARD A NEW PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN (1976). Nonetheless, for the adult educator, Gilligan's work is important, as it posts a STOP sign: readers should stop and examine theories of adult development, recognize these theories are based on man's life cycle (and often a small sample), and consider that women's development based on woman's life cycle may be different. A strength of Gilligan's work is her carefully selected examples which illustrate the differences between men's and women's perspectives. The use of quotations from the interviews and the examples from literature and mythology give the reader a more detailed picture and make for more interesting reading. Her organizational style of explaining developmental theory at that time and then carefully building her case with examples from other authorities and women themselves helps the reader comprehend the significance of her findings. The adult educator will be challenged personally after reading Gilligan's IN A DIFFERENT VOICE: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT to begin to listen more carefully to comments made by women and men, to hear the similarities and differences in expression and meaning, and to try to understand these differences in human development. The study of life cycles helps to "...order and make coherent the unfolding experiences and perceptions, the changing wishes and realities of everyday life." (p. 5) For the adult educator, the study of adult development and the significance of the differences between men's and women's perceptions may translate into many levels from the choice of programs offered to the techniques used within the programs themselves. To gain an awareness of these differences one may start by reading Carol Gilligan's IN A DIFFERENT VOICE. REFERENCES Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1986). WOMEN'S WAYS OF KNOWING: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF, VOICE, AND MIND. New York: Basic Books. Boucouvalas, M. with Krupp, J. (1990). Adult development and learning. In S. B. Merriam & P. M. Cunningham (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION (pp.183-200). San Francisco: JosseyBass. Gilligan, C. (1982). IN A DIFFERENT VOICE: PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Slusarski - Page 33 Kohlberg, L. (1981). THE PHILOSOPHY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers. Levinson, D. J. (1978). THE SEASON'S OF A MAN'S LIFE. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Miller, J. B. (1976). TOWARD A NEW PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN. Boston: Beacon Press. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 ___________________________________________________ CUMMULATIVE INDEX OF NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION 1. Volume 1 Number 1 ___________________________________________________ Adult Education in Nicaragua: Adapting and Growing in a Changing Reality by Samuel Simpson 2. Volume 2 Number 1 ____________________________________________________ Propaganda in Adult Education by Richard Novak The Informing of Adult Education by Adult Development by Nancy E. Hagan Procedures for Writers in the Field of Adult Education: How to Make Your Writings More Consistently Accessible within Computerized Information Databases by Judith Gwinn Adrain Feminist Methodology: A new Way of Knowing? by Carolyn Chase Volume 2 Number 2 __________________________________________________ Into 'Terra Incognito': Considerations on the 'Timeliness' and 'Importance' of the Carnegie corporation's early Involvement in Adult Education by Michael Law Women and Literacy in Tanzania by Sharon Cramer Bell Index - Page 34 Physical Learning Environments: Why Be concerned by Rodney Fulton Introducing Metaphors of Chaos to Adult Education by Robert Domaingue Volume 3 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Comparison of Computer and Audio Teleconferencing: One instructor's View by Norman Coombs Intellectual Suppression: Australian Case Histories, Analysis and Responses by Roger Boshier Volume 4 Number 1 ___________________________________________________________ Straight Time and Standard Brand Adult Education by John Ohliger A Comparison of Folk High Schools in Denmark, and East and West Germany by Robert Wendel A Descriptive Appraisal of Functional Literacy in Nigeria by Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi Intentional Changes by David Price Volume 5 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Community Adult Education In America: An Overview by Michael W. Galbraith and David Price Community Adult Education In Developing Countries by Linda Ziegahn Facilitated Community Development In A Rural Area by Allen B. Moore and Mary Anne Lahey Envisioning A Sustainable Society: Learning Our Way Out by Daniel V. Eastmond Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 Index - Page 35 ___________________________________________________ Technology in the Classroom of the Future by Wayne Hurtshuh Model Building and Strategic Planning in Continuing Higher Education by Paul J. Eldeson Culture Wars by Michael E. Ehringhaus NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 _____________________________________________ CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, seeks manuscripts for its 1992 issues. The editors solicit submissions of original research, conceptual analyses, case studies, and book reviews relating to adult education efforts. Faculty, graduate students, practitioners, and others concerned with adult education are welcome to submit articles. Once it receives the manuscripts, NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION coordinates a double-blind review by four of its editorial board members. Submissions must be authors' original work and not previously published. Manuscript Preparation: There are no length requirements; reviewers will evaluate articles to see that the subject and substance warrants the length. Submitted articles should include the title of the manuscript, full names, institutional affiliations, and positions of authors. Manuscripts should conform to the rules governing manuscript style and references outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), Third Edition. Text and references normally underscored should instead be typed in upper case (all caps). Authors should use written text explanations of concepts and data rather than diagrams or graphics, but simple tabular data, may be included. Forms of Submission: NEW HORIZONS accepts manuscripts in the following forms: 1) Electronic mail transmitted electronically to the NEW HORIZONS electronic address: horizons@suvm (for BITNET) or horizons@suvm.acs.syr.edu. (for Internet). Manuscripts - Page 36 2) Electronic copies stored in ASCII, the universal computer language, and mailed on floppy disk to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse NY 13244-1270. 3) Printed copies mailed to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270. Authors who submit printed manuscripts that are ultimately accepted for publication will provide, if possible, their manuscripts in electronic form. About the Journal: NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, founded in 1987, is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University. It is electronically transmitted to subscribers' personal computers via mainframe computers. Graduate student editors manage the journal in cooperation with an international editorial board also comprised of graduate students. There is no cost for subscription to NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, since issues are sent electronically to subscribers of the Adult Education Network (AEDNET). Journal subscription and membership in AEDNET is made by request via electronic mail to aednet@suvm (for BITNET) or aednet@suvm.acs.syr.edu (for Internet). NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is indexed and abstracted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------