From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:43:53 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:14:45 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL6N2 (1/1) [1/2] Archive HORIZONS, file vol6n2. Part 1/1 (subpart 1/2), total size 105547 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ ********************************************************** ********************************************************** ******************** ********************** ************* ************* ******* ******** **** ***** *** *** ** ** * NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION * * ISSN. 1062-3183 * ********************************************************** Volume 6 Number 2 Fall, 1992 ********************************************************** EDITORS Charles Awasu.................Syracuse University Daniel V. Eastmond............Syracuse University Ina Sue Brown.................Syracuse University COPY EDITOR Patricia Spencer..............Syracuse University EDITORIAL BOARD Robert Balance................North Carolina State University Sue Collard...................University of British Columbia Wayne Hartschuh...............Arizona State University Janice B. Johnson.............University of British Columbia Oma Morey.....................University of Texas at Austin Christine Olgren..............University of Wisconsin Lynn Paul.....................University of Montana Anita Prieto..................University of Missouri-Columbia Alice Schawo..................University of Missouri-Columbia Susan B. Slusarski............Syracuse University Edward W. Taylor..............University of Georgia Kimberly A. Townsend..........Pennsylvania State University Patricia Ann Weeks............Queensland University of Technology _____________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University's School of Education with funding from the Kellogg Foundation. The journal is managed by graduate students in several countries and is electronically transmitted via the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), accessible through BITNET and Internet. There is no cost for NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION; it is sent to all subscribers of AEDNET. PAGE 2 N E W H O R I Z O N S I N A D U L T E D U C A T I O N CONTENTS Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 I N T R O D U C T I O N Editor's Preface .............................1 A R T I C L E S Customer Satisfaction Studies: Implications for Job Related Continuing Education Farmer, J. A., Land, J. G., Gilbert, L. L., and Ainsley, J. R. Bringing the Partners Together in WorkPlace Literacy: A Canadian Perspective Taylor, M. C., Shohet, L. and Macleod, C...... B O O K R E V I E W Killing the Spirit: Higher Education in America Redding, T. R.................................. F O R Y O U R I N F O R M A T I O N Cumulative Index to New Horizons................ Call For Manuscripts............................ ______________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Fall 1992 EDITORS' PREFACE In this issue of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, we feature one of the articles discussed on-line. The discussion on KILLING THE SPIRIT a Book Review by Terrence Redding was interesting but short-lived due to the Bangkok Project discussion on AEDNET. This issue of NEW HORIZONS contains three articles addressing issues of importance in adult education. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION STUDIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR JOB Preface - Page 3 RELATED CONTINIUNG EDUCATION by Farmer et al. describes a system developed for assessing customer satisfaction relative to job-related continuing education. BRINGING THE PARTNERS TOGETHER IN WORKPLACE LITERACY: A CANADIAN REVIEW by Taylor et al. discusses the diverse viewpoints of business, labor and education concerning workplace literacy. The article presents practical suggestions for improving practice and increasing cooperation among the stakeholders, as well as providing a base for deepening understanding among the three constituents. In his review of Smith's book, KILLING THE SPIRIT: HIGHER EDUCATION IN AMERICA, Terrence Redding examines the author's assertion that students today are encouraged to keep their ideas within confines of thought imposed by leaders of the academy. Redding contends that readers might accept or reject Smith's ideas and thereby be motivated to advocate their own notions of higher education. _________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION STUDIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR JOB-RELATED CONTINUING EDUCATION James A. Farmer, Jr. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign J. Gerald Land Defense Systems Management College, Fort Belvior, VA Laura L. Gilbert University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign J. Robert Ainsley Defense Systems Management College, Fort Belvior, VA ABSTRACT Customer satisfaction studies are having considerable impact in business, industry and higher education. Approaches to customer satisfaction used in these settings are applicable, in adapted form, to a variety of organizations, including those which provide job- related continuing education. This article presents (a) Farmer et al., - Page 4 a summary of the main findings from a review of relevant literature about customer satisfaction studies, (b) a description of a system, developed by the authors, for use in assessing customer satisfaction relative to job-related continuing education, and (c) sample questions for both graduates of job-related continuing education and for their supervisors. LITERATURE REVIEW Customer Satisfaction Studies: A Specialized Evaluation. In a very general sense, customer satisfaction studies are a specialized form of evaluation. As such, they seek to determine the value or worth of what is being evaluated from a customer's perspective (Frost, Pierson, & Frost, 1991; West, Farmer & Wolf, 1991; Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989). Customer satisfaction studies can provide formative feedback, suggesting ways to improve what is evaluated. They can also be used summatively in determining whether or not to continue what is being evaluated and, if so, at what level of funding and effort. Values used to determine customer satisfaction may include relative values (i.e., better, same, worse) and absolute values (i.e., excellent, good, fair, poor). In customer satisfaction studies that are described in the literature, questions are typically asked regarding the extent to which customers perceive that (a) their expectations have been met; (b) their needs have been met; (c) there has been impact; and/or (d) there has been value added. None of the above is, in and of itself, sufficient in determining customer satisfaction. For instance, expectations and needs may be met, and impact may occur or value may be added; however, customers may still be unsatisfied. If so, satisfaction studies would need to help customers understand and appreciate the real value of what was provided. In another case, customers may be superficially "satisfied." Relatively weak expectations and "needs" (e.g., expressions of what they like or prefer rather than actual needs) may have been met. There can have been evidence of some sort(s) of impact. But little or no value may have actually been added. The result is likely to be some type of "customer satisfaction" which falls short of bona fide customer satisfaction. Below is a discussion of four approaches to understanding and assessing customer satisfaction which appear in the literature. These are pertinent to understanding customer satisfaction in the setting of job-related continuing education. These approaches seek to answer questions about expectations, needs, impacts, and values which were previously cited Farmer et al., - Page 5 as typical topics covered by customer satisfaction studies. Expectation Confirmation and Disconfirmation. From the expectation confirmation and disconfirmation perspective, customer satisfaction studies identify customer expectations in respect to a product and the confirmation or disconfirmation of those expectations in respect to the performance of that product (Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988). According to Oliver and DeSarbo, consumers form expectations of product performance prior to purchase and then compare performance levels to expectations based upon a better-than, worse-than heuristic. Drawing exclusively from the expectation confirmation and disconfirmation perspective, the Dictionary of Marketing Terms (Bennett, 1988) defines customer satisfaction as "... the degree to which there is a match between the customer's expectations of the product and the actual performance of the product" (p. 50). Oliver and DeSarbo (1988) identify three judgments which result from a comparison of customer expectations and product performance. "The judgment that results from this comparison is labeled negative disconfirmation if the product is worse than expected, positive disconfirmation if better than expected, and simple confirmation if as expected" (p. 495). Simple confirmation and positive disconfirmation imply that customer satisfaction exists. When this definition of customer satisfaction is adapted for use with job-related continuing education, the "customers" are the learners who participate in a learning activity. Their supervisors, the learners' work group, and their employing organizations are also considered customers. Thus, in respect to job-related continuing education, customer satisfaction studies from an expectation confirmation and disconfirmation perspective would seek, in part, to identify: (a) what graduates, supervisors, work groups, and employing organizations expect will result from participation in a particular learning activity; and (b) the performance of the graduates on the job, particularly aspects of that performance which they attribute to what was learned in the learning activity. If (b) equals or exceeds (a) then, from this theoretical perspective, customer satisfaction has been achieved. Customer satisfaction is determined by the degree to which the customers' expectations in terms of enhanced job performance are met and considered attributable to what was received in the jobrelated continuing education. Farmer et al., - Page 6 It is necessary in customer satisfaction studies to determine the extent to which customers' expectations have been met. However, the meeting of expectations without meeting needs, particularly if little or no value has been added, is not a firm basis for establishing a long-term and sound relationship between the provider of goods and services (including job- related continuing education) and the customers. The value of goods or services provided may exceed or otherwise be different from what was anticipated. Helping customers perceive that what was provided and its outcomes exceed or otherwise differ positively from expectations can be an important benefit of customer satisfaction studies which include a "goal-free evaluation" (Scriven, 1973) component. This can be done by taking into consideration needs, impact, and added value which are not defined or otherwise constrained by expectations. Needs Theory. Some approaches to studying customer satisfaction collect data about customers' needs and evidence about the extent to which customers perceive that those needs have been met. Needs can be defined in the following ways (Bradshaw, 1974; Briggs & Wager, 1981; Burton & Merrill, 1977): Normative needs are determined by comparing the current situation and a relevant norm. Such norms can include what experts have described as "normal" or "desirable" (Farmer, Buckmaster, & LeGrand, 1988). Expressed needs are based on statements by individuals indicating they need something and are willing to expend time and/or money to attain it. Felt needs consist of lacks, hurts or gaps experienced by individuals who have not stated them in the form of expressed needs and/or who are unable or unwilling to put time or money into addressing such needs. Comparative needs are identified by contrasting what has benefitted persons elsewhere with what has been provided locally. It is assumed that persons locally are in need of whatever it was that benefitted similar individuals elsewhere. Anticipated or future needs are ones which are likely to occur or be identified at some time in the future. Customers are likely to be satisfied to the extent that all or most of such needs have been met. There is, however, a tendency for data about needs to reflect Farmer et al., - Page 7 preferences. Consequently, data are limited to expressed needs with little or no attention having been given to the more difficult-to-meet normative, felt, comparative, and anticipated needs. To correct for such potential weaknesses, some customer satisfaction studies go further than merely seeking to determine the extent to which expectations and needs have been met by collecting data about impact. Impact Studies. Impact studies focus on the immediate and/or longer- term outcomes (Katz & Kahn, 1978) provided by goods or services. Peterson (1979) calls evidence of immediate customer satisfaction "reaction outcomes." Impact studies seek to go beyond reaction outcomes to what Peterson (1979) refers to as "application outcomes" and "worth outcomes." Learning's effect on graduates' on- the-job performance and the impact of learning upon the employing organizations are "application outcomes" and "worth outcomes" respectively. Customer satisfaction studies emphasizing impact tend to determine the nature and impact of training by establishing causal links (Robinson & Robinson, 1989; Ennis, 1973) between training and on-the-job performance. Both the intrinsic and extrinsic functions of the job-related continuing education are considered. Intrinsic functions are changes in knowledge, attitudes, or skills attributable to what was learned in the program or course. Extrinsic functions are effects of the education on the graduates' on-the-job performance. Impact studies are "program assessments conducted after some predetermined time lapse following the implementation of programs" (Holt & Courtenay, 1985, p. 23). They look at the "transfer of learning" (Cormier & Hagman,1987). Rivera (1987) stated that program impact studies examine the outcomes of a program and whether or not those outcomes can be traced back to the training. One way of "tracing" outcomes back to a program is by asking graduates and their supervisors the extent to which they "totally or partially attribute" (Ennis, 1973) current performance to what was learned from a learning activity. According to Holt and Courtenay, change is different from impact (i.e., consequences). For instance, a small change may have enormous consequences or vice versa. The impact study perspective is particularly useful in helping to think through relationships between competencies, on- the-job performance, and the effects of education as well as the extent to which those effects are attributed or attributable to what was learned through Farmer et al., - Page 8 job-related continuing education. Asking questions about short-term and long-term impacts tends to be an important step in the right direction. However, some authors do not think that this is sufficient. They recommend taking the next logical step which is to ask questions about the extent to which there has been "value added." Value Added. The Dictionary of Marketing Terms (Bennett, 1988) defines value added in economic and marketing terms. In these terms, value added refers to the increase in value which results from the contribution made to a product's worth by a particular organization or the increase in value resulting from marketing activities. Osighew (1988) steps outside of marketing and economics and defines value added in terms of training or education. Osighew states: In the context of human service training programs or organizations pursuing an occupational or work- related training mission, "value-added" refers to the ability of the organization or its programs to influence its enrollees (or targets) favorably by making positive and identifiable contribution to their mental as well as personal development. (pp. 391-392) Fitz-enz (1988) echoes Osighew's definition of value added. According to Fitz-enz: Trainers should begin by viewing their function as one that does more than just increase skills, impart knowledge, or foster a change in attitudes; they must prove that people use the skills, knowledge, or attitudes to upgrade their job performance. (pp. 19-20) Osighew and Fitz-enz's definitions of value added are particularly relevant to the assessment of customer satisfaction derived from job-related continuing education. The authors of this article believe that, when applied to job-related continuing education, the term value added can be used in two ways. First of all, value added can be defined as the difference between someone's knowledge and abilities prior to enrolling in continuing education and what that person knows and is able to do upon graduation from the continuing education. Farmer et al., - Page 9 A = Knowledge and ability prior to continuing education. B = Knowledge and ability upon graduation from continuing education. B - A = Value Added Secondly, value added can also be defined as the result of the synergistic relationship between what is learned through continuing education and the graduate's learning subsequent to completion of continuing education. The continuing education experience can do more than simply impart knowledge; it may serve as a catalyst for increased learning and enhanced ability to accomplish tasks. Further, it can enhance the graduate's ability to take a basic understanding or idea and more fully explore it at a later time. Value added can be viewed as the sum of what is learned through continuing education and subsequent learning resulting from additional reading, consultation with colleagues and supervisors, on-the-job experiential learning and additional relevant learning from other sources. A = Knowledge and ability prior to continuing education. B = Knowledge and ability upon graduation from continuing education B - A = C = Change attributable to continuing education. D = Knowledge from subsequent additional reading such as the publications from professional organizations. E = Knowledge and abilities attained from subsequent consultation with colleagues. F = Knowledge and abilities attained from subsequent consultation with supervisors. G = Knowledge and abilities attained from subsequent on-the-job experiential learning. H = Knowledge learned in meetings, conferences, seminars etc.. C + D + E + F + G + H = Overall Value Added We recommend that the second definition of value added provided above be used in customer satisfaction studies relative to job-related continuing education. Much important learning can take place following a continuing education experience, building on what was learned in it and providing a multiplier effect. Customer satisfaction studies which ignore the multiplier effect can be seriously biased, leading the provider and the customers to conclude that the overall impact of the job-related continuing education was considerably less than it actually was. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) TQM Defined Farmer et al., - Page 10 Some authors point out that the value of customer satisfaction studies lies in their key role in strategic planning and in laying the groundwork for implementing TQM programs both of which can improve the effectiveness of an organization. TQM is a management approach that focuses on product quality and customer satisfaction as tools to improve overall performance. Key principles of TQM include customer focus and fact- based decision making. From the TQM perspective, quality is mainly what the customer says it is, and the customers' perception of quality should drive the quality improvement effort (Mendelowitz, 1991). Customer opinion surveys, focus group interviews, meetings with customers, and other means are used to better understand customers' requirements and expectations. Fact-based information gathered by the above means is used to systematically measure and evaluate the quality achieved with existing business processes. Findings can be used in developing suggestions for necessary changes (Mendelowitz, 1991). TQM in Higher Education. Included in the literature is reference to customer satisfaction studies being conducted as part of TQM efforts in institutions of higher education. For example, "Enhancing Quality in an Era of Resource Constraints, A Report of the Task Force on Costs in Higher Education " (Bole et al., 1990) discusses the use of customer-defined quality and TQM in institutions of higher education. The University of Michigan task force that developed that report notes that quality can be improved only by developing a deep understanding of customer needs and expectations. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION STUDIES: ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION Informal Feedback Tools. Customer satisfaction studies are relatively new to the field of adult and continuing education. For many years, the providers of job-related continuing education have believed that that what they offer is valuable. Informal feedback and end-of-course evaluations (sometimes pejoratively referred to as "happiness indices") from the learners have tended to reinforce that belief. Because this information reflects short-term satisfaction with the instruction and content with little or no connection between that information and its subsequent contribution to on-the- job performance, it tends to be of limited value. Methods Approximating or Analogous to Farmer et al., - Page 11 Customer Satisfaction Studies A few efforts by adult educators (Forest & Marshall, 1977; Farmer, 1971; LeGrand, 1988) have used methods which approximate customer satisfaction studies to collect feedback about job-related continuing education six months or more after the learning activity. "Impact studies" (Forest & Marshall, 1977), a form of "outcome research" (Keller, Bigos, Heck, Rothman, & Swiontkowski, 1991), have sought to trace the effects of adult and continuing education. Farmer (1971) used randomly-assigned focus groups of 10-12 persons who were alumni of a program designed to strengthen the way adult and continuing educators teach adults. The groups discussed the program and their use of what they learned from it and recommended ways to strengthen it. LeGrand (1971) used a mailed questionnaire which addressed the relationship between the graduates' current employment, if any, their present life situation, and what they learned in the job-related continuing education activity. These efforts by Forest and Marshall (1971), Farmer (1971), and LeGrand (1988) roughly approximate customer satisfaction studies in use today. However, these studies by adult educators were completed on a one-time basis rather than on an on-going basis as part of TQM efforts. Remarks The authors' approach, as described later, to conducting customer satisfaction studies for use in job-related continuing education has been adapted mainly from the approaches described above and techniques currently used in business, industry, and higher education. "Lessons learned" from previous, somewhat analogous efforts and impact studies in adult and continuing education were useful in adapting those techniques for use in conducting customer satisfaction studies relative to job-related continuing education. Based on our review of the literature, we conclude that the field of job-related continuing education can benefit from the use of well-designed studies which seek to assess customer satisfaction as evinced by enhanced on-the-job performance. The approach to conducting customer satisfaction studies recommended below provides a way to do this. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ASSESSMENT SYSTEM: JOB-RELATED CONTINUING EDUCATION Background With funding provided in part by the Department of Defense, Defense Systems Management College (DSMC) in Farmer et al., - Page 12 Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, the authors developed a customer satisfaction assessment system for use in job-related continuing education and managerial education. It was originally created for the DSMC and subsequently revised for for use in job-related continuing education. Customer satisfaction studies of job-related continuing education can best be viewed as part of an overall effort to determine the value or worth of the continuing education provided. In job-related continuing education and managerial education, it is not enough for the graduates to simply enjoy the learning activities. The graduates and their supervisors need to perceive that the learning activities lead to an enhancement of on-the-job performance. Overview of Data Collection Techniques The use of several data collection techniques, rather than any one of them alone, is preferable. We recommend supplementing one-on-one personal interviews with focus groups and questionnaires to better understand customer satisfaction from the perspective of continuing education graduates and their supervisors. These techniques tend to complement each other and work in a variety of ways to assess customer satisfaction. The differential contributions of each of these techniques is described briefly. Personal interviews provide the opportunity to ask open-ended questions and to probe extensively for complete answers (Churchill, 1987). Focus groups provide the opportunity to gather an abundance of rich information by asking open-ended questions to a group of eight to twelve persons. Results from focus groups may not always be easy to interpret, but focus groups tend to provide useful information resulting from group discussion. Survey questionnaires generally do not allow extensive probing; however, questionnaires help to insure the anonymity of the respondents and allow for structured responses which may be efficiently tabulated and interpreted. Questionnaires offer a less expensive way to obtain information from a large number of people. When used in combination, these techniques constitute a customer satisfaction assessment system. Focus Groups The authors see focus groups and questionnaires as playing particularly important roles in the assessment Farmer et al., - Page 13 of customer satisfaction associated with job-related continuing education A focus group may serve the overall assessment system in two quite different ways, depending upon the sequence in which the focus group interviews and questionnaires are administered: 1. If focus groups are conducted prior to the use of survey questionnaires, they may function as a "pre- test" of written or oral questions. Focus group participants may be asked to respond to questions to be included on a survey and to comment on their logic, ease of understanding, or structure. Focus group participants may also generate additional questions for inclusion in survey questionnaires. 2. If focus groups follow questionnaires, the focus group may serve two purposes. First, it may provide data which have not or cannot be readily gathered through a survey questionnaire. For instance because of the limited probing allowed in a questionnaire format, the questionnaire may fail to gauge subjects' true feelings concerning a particular job-related continuing education program. Second, questionnaire responses which are unclear, problematic, or unexpected may be clarified or explained through focus group discussion. The intent of the focus group is to provide a human dimension to balance the survey questionnaire. This sequence of focus group interviews and survey questionnaires should be repeated periodically to insure that the job-related continuing education program is going well and that timely revisions in the program may be made as necessary. Potential questions for use in a focus group in which the participants are supervisors of job-related continuing education program graduates appear in Figure 1. These questions can be paraphrased for use in focus groups in which the job-related continuing education graduates themselves are the participants. Figure 1. Sample questions for use in focus groups: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. Think about a job-related continuing education graduate who was positive about the experience. What made the graduate feel this way? How were these feelings about the continuing education experience reflected in job performance? 2. What do you expect from a continuing education graduates once they return to the job? Do you expect any changes in their behavior? 3. To what extent have the continuing education Farmer et al., - Page 14 graduates acquired necessary knowledge, abilities, and skills from having attended the job-related continuing education? 4. As a supervisor, what benefits (i.e. added value), if any, do you see as a result of personnel attending the job-related continuing education program? 5. What kinds of persons are likely to benefit from attending the job-related continuing education program? 6. What kinds of persons are not likely to benefit from attending the job-related continuing education program? 7. How, if at all, were you involved in the decision for your subordinate to attend the job-related continuing education program? 8. What have you done and what can you do as supervisors to contribute to the on-going education and development of your personnel once they return from a job-related continuing education activity? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The information obtained from the use of focus groups may result in a better understanding of the extent to which customers are satisfied and perceive that value has been added as a result of job-related continuing education, subsequent on-the-job learning, and additional continuing education. Questionnaires In addition to the use of focus groups, the authors recommend the use of mail questionnaires for collecting information from graduates and their supervisors in job-related continuing education customer satisfaction studies. Such questionnaires should include two types of questions: (a) questions about what an individual knows, is able to do, and understands; and (b) questions about what an individual needs to know, be able to do, and understand. Information gathered in response to these types of questions is key to understanding the relationship between current on-the- job performance and prior learning. Examples of questionnaire items designed for use with the DSMC's continuing education courses are presented in Figure 2 (Farmer et al., 1991). The questions which appear in the figure are designed for continuing education graduates who answer the questionnaire with respect to a specific competency area associated with their job responsibilities. These questions can be Farmer et al., - Page 15 easily adapted so that supervisors of continuing education graduates may provide feedback regarding what the graduates know, are able to do, and understand. Figure 2. Graduate Questionnaire. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. How well are you able to do tasks in this competency area? Not at all Very well 1 2 3 4 5 2. How well do you need to be able to do tasks in this competency area to do your job acceptably/satisfactorily? Not at all Very well 1 2 3 4 5 3. How much do you know about this competency area? Nothing A lot 1 2 3 4 5 4. How much do you need to know in this competency area to do your job satisfactorily? Nothing A lot 1 2 3 4 5 5. How much understanding of the relevant principles underlying this competency area do you have? None A lot 1 2 3 4 5 6. How much understanding of relevant principles underlying this competency area do you need to do your job acceptably/satisfactorily? None A lot 1 2 3 4 5 7. Check all of the following that pertain to you and your job ___ I am able to teach this competency area to others acceptably/satisfactorily. ___ I need to improve my ability to teach this competency area to others. ___ I am able to supervise others in this competency area acceptably/satisfactorily. ___ I need to improve my ability to supervise others in this competency area. Farmer et al., - Page 16 __ I am able to evaluate others in this competency area. acceptably/satisfactorily. ___ I need to improve my ability to evaluate others in this competency area. ___ I am an expert in this competency area. ___ I need to become an expert in this competency area. ___ I have received commendation(s) or other special recognition for performance in this competency area. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The questions appearing in Figure 2 can be adapted for use in other types of job-related continuing education. If the competency areas or comparable aspects of the graduates' work are not known, these can be identified in one-on-one interviews or focus groups. Questionnaire results can be used to determine the level of customer satisfaction and pinpoint both the sources of customer satisfaction and areas that require instructional improvement. As described here, a customer satisfaction assessment system which combines personal interviews, focus group interviews, and questionnaires is particularly useful. Figure 3 summarizes specific questions which, when addressed in one-on-one interviews, focus groups, and survey questionnaires, provide the basis for a useful customer satisfaction assessment system for job-related continuing education. Figure 3. Questions that can be addresed in Job-Related Continuing Education Customer Satisfaction. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. What do continuing education graduates bring to the course in terms of prior training and experience that may have affected the appropriateness of their being in the course? 2. To what extent do the graduates learn necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills in the job-related continuing education? 3. To what extent do graduates attain necessary competencies as a result of having attended the course? 4. To what extent do the graduates supplement what they learned in continuing education with additional on-the-job learning and/or further training? 5. To what extent are the graduates perceived as performing their jobs satisfactorily? 6. To what extent do the graduates and their supervisors attribute the adequacy of the graduates' on-the-job performance to what those graduates learned through the job-related continuing education? Farmer et al., - Page 17 7. To what extent do graduates and their supervisors attribute the adequacy of the graduates' on-the-job performance to subsequent on-the-job experiential learning? 8. To what extent do the graduates and their supervisors attribute the adequacy of the graduates' on-the-job performance to additional continuing education? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CONCLUSION Customer satisfaction studies are being used in business, industry, and higher education to supplement other types of evaluative feedback. The authors of this article conclude that their use, in an adapted form, can benefit job-related continuing education. The customer satisfaction assessment system described in this article was designed to facilitate the collection of data from customers of job-related continuing education, utilizing one-on-one interviews, focus groups, and survey questionnaires. Sample questions are provided above for use with graduates and their supervisors. Those questions seek to determine not only the extent of customer satisfaction but also of value added. Finding out that learners are happy with the instruction and what was learned in it may provide some evidence of customers having been satisfied. Unless accompanied by evidence of enhanced on-the-job performance, however, such evidence can be taken at most as gratifying but potentially misleading feedback. In job-related continuing education, value added is not a luxury, but a necessity. REFERENCES Bennett, P. D. (1988). DICTIONARY OF MARKETING TERMS. American Marketing Association. Bole, G. G., Gramlich, E. M., Haddad, G. I., Holbrook, R. S., Knepp, M. G., Krumm, W. B., Matthews, R. G., Rich, L. M., Weisbuch, R. A., & Whitaker, G. R. (1990). ENHANCING QUALITY IN AN ERA OF RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS: REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE ON COSTS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Bradshaw, J. (1974). The concept of social need. EKISTICS. 220, 184-187. Briggs, L. J. & Wager, W. W. (1981). HANDBOOK OF PROCEDURES FOR THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION (Second edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Burton, J. K. & Merrill, P. F. (1977). Needs assessment: Goals, needs and priorities. In L. J. Briggs (Ed.), INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Farmer et al., - Page 18 Churchill, G. A. Jr. (1987). MARKETING RESEARCH. Chicago: Dryden. Cormier, S. M., & Hagman, J. D. (1987). TRANSFER OF LEARNING: CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Ennis, R. H. (1973). On causality. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER. 2, (6), 4-11. Farmer, J. A. (1971). Organization and financing of teacher preparation in adult and education programs. PROCEEDINGS: HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTE FOR TEACHER PREPARATION IN ADULT EDUCATION. (pp. 23-27). Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. Farmer, J. A., Buckmaster, A. & LeGrand, B. (1988). Situation- Specific Approaches. LIFELONG LEARNING: AN OMNIBUS OF PRACTICE AND RESEARCH, 12, 8-13. Farmer, J. A., Gilbert L., Murray, S., Snellen, J., Bragg, D., Deshler, D., & Paprock, K. (1991). TASK ORDER 91-1: CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ASSESSMENT SYSTEM. Champaign: University of Illinois, Office for the Study of Continuing Education, Training and Development. Fitz-enz, J. (1988). Proving the value of training. PERSONNEL, 65(3), 17-23. Forest, L. B., & Marshall, M. G. (1977). IMPACT OF EXTENSION IN SHAWANO COUNTY. University of Wisconsin. Frost, C., Pierson, M., & Frost, K. (1991). Evaluating College Teaching: Myths and Meanings. KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD, 27(2), 58-62. Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a Conceptual Framework of Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs. EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION AND POLICY ANALYSIS, 11(3), 255-274. Holt, M. E., & Courtenay, B. C. (1985). An Examination of Impact Evaluations. CONTINUUM, 49(1), 23-35. Katz, D. & Kahn, R.L. (1978). THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOFY OF ORGANIZATION (Second edition). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Keller, R. B., Bigos, S. J., Heck, D. A., Rothman, R. H., & Swiontkowski, M. F. (1991). Fundamentals of Outcome Research. SYMPOSIUM ON MUSCULOSKELETAL OUTCOME RESEARCH (pp. 1-34). LeGrand, B. F. (1988). A Study of Graduates of Off-Campus Graduate Programs at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign: Change and Related Learning. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Farmer et al., - Page 19 1987). DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL, 49/01A, 28. Mendelowitz, A. I. (1991). REPORT TO THE HONORABLE DONALD RITTER, House of Representatives, Management Practices, U.S. COMPANIES IMPROVE PERFORMANCE THROUGH QUALITY EFFORTS. May 1991. Washington D.C.: United States General Accounting Office, National Security and International Affairs. Oliver, R. L., & DeSarbo, W. S. (1988). Response determinants in satisfaction judgments. JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, 14, 495-507. Osighew, C. A. B. (1988). Evaluating performance in training- oriented human service organizations. GROUPS & ORGANIZATIONS STUDIES, 13, 389-408. Peterson, R.O. (Ed.) (1979). DETERMINING THE PAYOFF OF MANAGEMENT TRAINING. ASTD Research Series, Paper #3. Madison, WI: American Society for Training and Development. Development. Rivera, W. M. (1987). Making impacts: The educational end result and its measurement. MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION. Los Angeles: Klevins. Robinson, D. G. & Robinson, J. C. (1989). TRAINING FOR IMPACT. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Scriven, M. (1973). THE EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL GOALS, INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES AND OUTCOMES OR THE ICEMAN COMETH. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 079 394) West, C. K., Farmer, J. A., & Wolf, P. M. (1991). INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: IMPLICATIONS FROM COGNITIVE SCIENCE. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 BRINGING THE PARTNERS TOGETHER IN WORKPLACE LITERACY: A CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE Maurice C. Taylor Associate Professor, University of Ottawa Linda Shohet Director, The Centre for Literacy Carol MacLeod National Co-ordinator of Education, Canadian Federation of Labour Taylor et al., - Page 20 ABSTRACT With the growing gap between workplace demands and workforce skills, there is a need to ensure that employees with basic skills deficiencies have education and training opportunities. Much has been said about the role of partnerships as the stimulant for innovation in the workplace, however, the forging of such partnerships has been slow in coming. In an effort to learn more about the North American experience in workplace literacy, a panel discussion was held last year at an adult education conference. Practitioners from business, labour and education in both Canada and the United States provided a perspective on the current status of this evolving field. The following essay is drawn from the viewpoints of the Canadian representatives after dialogue, interaction, and discussion during the conference session. The three perspectives are diverse in terms of position and concerns but offer practical suggestions for improving practice and increasing co-operation among the stakeholders. INTRODUCTION Workforce literacy is a term that has been receiving considerable attention recently in North America. Sometimes referred to as the basic skills needed to function effectively in the economy, it has become a concern for human resource executives, union leaders, and education and training managers in private and public organizations. As suggested by the term, workforce literacy pertains specifically to those workers who have limited basic skills. Because of new technologies, the relaxation of world trade restrictions and the globalization of world markets, the workplace now requires a different type of labour force than in the past. As a result, this new phenemenon called the job skills gap now requires a more concerted effort by all stakeholders to decrease the mismatch between job demands and worker skills. In response, new training strategies such as workplace literacy programs have been introduced as opportunities to learn the necessary skills required for fuller participation in work life. As with every evolving field, there are the accompanying problems. According to Johnston (1991), there are only 100 workplace literacy programs or projects across Canada. Many people who work in this field believe that this is an inadequate response to an increasing training need. Generally, these initiatives to set up basic skills training have come primarly from unions, school boards and community colleges. Although businesses are showing signs of interest in this training activity, employers seem to take initiatives only when confronted with a crisis that has revealed a lack of basic skills in their workforce. Much has been said about the increased need for co-operation among business, labour and education as the stimulant for innovation in the workplace. However, only cursory attempts have been made to explain why such partnerships in basic skills training are dificult to operationalize. If collaboration and commitment of all members of Taylor et al., - Page 21 the labour market are the cornerstones required to ensure that all workers prepare for a lifetime of learning in the workforce, then, how do we thread these workplace literacy initiatives into the fabric of the organizational culture? In an effort to learn more about the North American experience in workplace literacy, a panel discussion was held last year at the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education conference in Montreal, Quebec. The purpose of the session entitled "Workplace Literacy-An International Dialogue" was to conduct a discussion of key issues among leading practitioners in workplace programs from both Canada and the United States. It was intended to open a dialogue on the need for and effectiveness of workplace literacy programs in North America. Three practitioners from each country representing business, labour and education provided a perspective on the current status of this evolving field. It was felt that by bringing the stakeholders together it would promote a better understanding of the different viewpoints held by each constituency and increase opportunities for further collaboration. Canadian representatives included Linda Shohet (business), Carol MacLeod (labour) and Maurice Taylor (education). Counter-parts from the United States were Robert Bickerton, Anthony Sarmiento and Ron Pugsley. Each panel member briefly addressed two or three key points based on their field experience and in light of the presentation objectives. The 75 people attending the session were mostly from education and labour organizations. Panel members responded to their counterparts and continued the dialogue through a network of interested practitioners, thereby organizing program visits between regions and countries and to plan another session for next year's conference. As a means of disseminating the rich exchange of information from the session, the Canadian panel members have taken the salient points of their presentation and integrated comments and reflective questions drawn from the panel interactions and group discussion into the following essay. Although the three perspectives are diverse in terms of position and concerns, threaded through each are practical suggestions for improving practice and increasing co-operation among business, labour, and education. BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES ON WORKPLACE LITERACY "Talkinbout" Workplace Literacy When McArthur Foundation scholar Rexford Brown visited American and Canadian schools in the late 1980s in search of the "higher order literacy" that everybody agrees ought to be taught today to prepare students for the 21st century, he found a lot of "talkinbout." --"because we saw so many people talking about reading but not actually reading, talking about writing but not actually writing, (1991, p. 235). Someone who set out today in search of quality workplace literacy Taylor et al., - Page 22 programs in Canada would discover a similar landscape -- much "talkinbout," little action. The question is: what is impeding the business community from upgrading the basic skills of its workforce at a time when economic analysts worldwide are predicting that a high quality workforce is one of the prerequisites for businesses which expect to survive and flourish in the 21st century? The answer is complex. It lies partly in the history of worker education in this country, partly in federal/provincial jurisdictional ambiguities surrounding education and manpower, and partly in a widespread lack of understanding of the issue in the business community. I want to concentrate on the last reason, because it is the place where we are now and the best position to move beyond "talkinbout" to action. To anchor this presentation, I have drawn on the notes from a series of focused discussion meetings held with members of the business and education communities in Montreal, Quebec. Once a month during 1991, The Centre for Literacy of Quebec, a public literacy resource and training centre, invited a group of ten to twelve people (including CEOs, human resource managers, language trainers, school board and postsecondary administrators and adult education teachers) to talk over lunch about ways of increasing awareness of literacy as a workplace issue. The shape of the discussions was determined by the configuration of participants, but there were some recurrent questions. I believe they reflect similar concerns across Canada. Business Sector Questions About Literacy The most frequent question was about definition. Over and over again, business people asked: What is meant by literacy? They generally understood it as an absolute condition, that is, one is either literate or illiterate; they tended to disbelieve that literacy could be an issue in the industrialized world and even if it were, they doubted that it was a problem in their own workplace. Most business people we met did not understand the term "basic skills" either as a description of a specific set of skills or in relation to literacy. There were representatives from a few large companies who acknowledged that some of their employees had problems with reading, writing, speaking or computation. But most of these spokespeople talked about making entry-level testing more stringent to screen out new applicants with basic skills problems while waiting for current workers with low level skills to retire. Although some participants supported the need for sustained workforce education as part of a corporate strategy, only a few could point to a sustained commitment at their own enterprise. Participants questioned media reports. They complained that it was hard to know whether the literacy problem was being fairly portrayed or sensationalized. Headlines scream about the "scourge of illiteracy" or about a $4-billion a year loss to Canadian business caused by illiteracy or about Canada being unable to compete internationally Taylor et al., - Page 23 because of an illiterate workforce. Business people are often not able to judge the accuracy of these claims. They wanted to know where they could find accurate information and who could provide an unbiased interpretation of these data. Participants also raised questions about responsibility. They asked why business should be responsible for literacy and basic skills when that mandate has been accorded to the schools. And even if business should accept part of the responsibility, how could any but the largest corporations provide education for its workers? A few participants were uneasy with the rhetoric of some labour educators who link literacy and empowerment. This concern is not a specifically Canadian one. Thomas Sticht, one of the first American workplace literacy researchers, recently voiced his worry that notions of learner participation are exaggerated in relation to organizational perspectives in workplace contexts. You can't apply Paolo Freire's theories of the oppressed in business and industry. You can't say you're oppressing your workers and I'm here to empower them to overthrow your dictatorial management styles. It won't work. (BCEL, January 1992, p. 7) Finally, those business people who do recognize the problem and prepared to assume some responsibility asked repeatedly where they could turn for guidance. How could they differentiate among the immense and increasing number of learning packages being marketed with the promise to upgrade workers' skills using the latest technology in the fastest time possible? A Consumer's Guide to Workplace Literacy When asked what would help them clarify the issue of literacy in the workplace, business people almost unanimously said they needed clear, concise information. They all said they work under intense pressure and do not have time to read extensive research studies and reports. And they need a framework for deciding whether they have a literacy problem, whether they ought to be doing something about it, and whether the commercial upgrading programs that are being offered to them are well-desinged or effective. The idea of protecting consumers against defective goods has been firmly established in North America in the past thirty years. Now, ironically, the corporate sector itself seems to be in need of some protection as it becomes the uninformed "consumer" of educational services required for its own survival. This is especially apparent in regard to literacy. ABC Canada, the private sector Canadian literacy foundation, has taken a first step in providing some direction with the publication in late 1991 of WORKPLACE LITERACY, AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE FOR EMPLOYERS. This extraordinary guide asks a series of questions and answers them drawing on the best that is currently known. The first question sets the tone: Taylor et al., - Page 24 Q: What kind of commitment must I make to improve literacy in my workplace? A: Literacy in the workplace requires a long-term commitment; there is no quick fix. Literacy skills upgrading should be built into your company's strategic plan. Literacy is not an add on ---it must be tied into existing priorities. (p. 2) The guide is philosophically coherent but never prescriptive. It does not recommend specific programs or methods, but does offer general principles. For example, "Successful programs are those that consider both organizational and workers' needs." (p. 5) (Thomas Sticht can rest assured.) On needs assessment, the recommendation is that you first determine how literacy fits into existing organizational and training objectives with individual assessments coming much later after employees have agreed to participate. What next? The next publication needed is a similar set of simplified guidelines for evaluating learning materials or programs, by answering questions such as "What do we know about reading? about writing? about second-language acquisition?" A quick checklist could tip off a prospective buyer about "literacy gain" claims too good to be true, and protect both employer and worker. The problem is one of changing a culture. Without a learning culture in the Canadian workplace, literacy has no natural place on a continuum of workforce education. But there are forces of resistance. Recent suverys have revealed that, because the recession has created a pool of skilled labour, most Canadian businesses have not yet experienced any shortage of workers with basic skills. Even though economic forecasters insist that the shortage will be upon us by mid-decade and that long-term planning is required to forestall a crisis, the same recession mentality works against long-term thinking; survival is the issue for many businesses. Since a commitment to education has never been part of the Canadian business ethos, this is a difficult time to sell the idea. There is also a danger that, overwhelmed by the immensity of taking on what appears to be an impossible mission, many businesses will either ignore or dismiss the entire issue. Apart from the ABC Canada effort, literacy has not been defined often enough in the media or in public forums in terms that make sense to the business community. The challenge is to convince the business community that literacy belongs on a continuum of workforce education as an investment in survival. As a beginning, ABC Canada should circulate a copy of the Employer's Guide to as many Canadian businesses as possible; local literacy centres should create ongoing opportunities for discussion between education and business such as the ones offered in Montreal by The Centre for Literacy; and effective Canadian workplace models should be regularly publicized and shared among trainers. Taylor et al., - Page 25 A LABOUR PERSPECTIVE ON BASIC SKILLS As an emerging issue, literacy has begun to marshal momentum and harness resources. It is critical that those championing the issue devote time and attention to developing a paradigm that reflects the values and philosophical underpinnings of their approach. To do so presupposes that serious consideration has been given to a range of key questions. To not do so presupposes that your educational strategies are influenced by forces shaped by others. The litmus test of whether or not sufficient thought has been given to context deals with reconciling the tension between the social and economic perspectives of literacy. Do you view literacy as a social issue? Do you view literacy as an economic issue? Do you view literacy as a hybrid of the two perspectives? A labour perspective on basic skills is rooted in the context of the workplace and the advocacy role that unions hold as guardians of workers' rights. It offers a paradigm that is based on the principles of empowerment and may prove to be useful as a stimulus for those interested in clarifying their own vision. Unions' Stake in Education and Literacy Unions have a proud tradition of excellence in education and training. For example, the building and construction trades unions - via apprenticeship programs - are vanguards of learning opportunities. Basic skills upgrading is seen as an expansion of this tradition by providing the foundation for life-long learning. There is a growing awareness among labour leaders that an educational strategy is key to labour's response to changing labour market patterns. Momentum for this opinion is abetted by the fact that 75% of the next decade's workforce is already out of school (Sarmiento & Kay, 1990). For many of these adults, returning to the traditional school system is not an option; therefore, the workplace becomes an important focal point for training. The challenges facing Canada and the United States, in terms of a global market, are staggering. Business has at least two ways to compete in the new economy: (a) to deskill jobs and cut costs, such as wages and benefits or, (b) take a long-term view and make the worker central to the organization's business plan. Education and training, including basic skills upgrading, becomes critical to the high-skill strategy. The labour movement has an interest in promoting a highly-skilled workforce as a means of attracting and maintaining jobs in Canada; however, the human contract between unions and their members is paramount. One of the contributions that the labour movement continues to make, in the public discussion on literacy and adult education, is to consistently reinforce that the implications of literacy go far beyond productivity and economic growth. A vision of a just society positions literacy as a social issue that is linked to long-standing union goals. The labour movement is interested, not only in a skilled workforce, but an informed citizenry. A progressive nation is one in which its people are able to fully Taylor et al., - Page 26 participate in their communities and draw on their potential to build a better life for their families. Quality-of-life issues cannot be divorced from any perspective on literacy as these issues reflect some of the human aspirations that we all share. To reinforce these key points, the Canadian Federation of Labour (1991) chose LITERACY FOR WORKERS over Workplace Literacy as its project name. The former positions the union as an advocate and recognizes that people operate in many spheres including family, community and workplaces. An economically-driven perspective of literacy is much more limiting. Labour is concerned about the potential negative consequences associated with a perspective that features a singular focus on maximizing human potential only as it correlates to maximizing profit potential. Literacy in the Modern Workplace In today's workplace, literacy means far more than the three Rs. It includes many different kinds of skills such as problem-solving, communications, and English or French as a second language. Integral to an understanding of workplace literacy is an awareness that literacy standards increase as society becomes more complicated. How does this translate to a workplace context? In many instances, technology has changed so dramatically that previously acceptable standards of literacy are now too low. The crane industry yields an illustration. Modern cranes carry on-board computers and operators now require higher-level math in order to calculate load charts as opposed to relying on the "feel" of the machine. Additionally, there is more work-related reading required now than at any other point in time. The introduction of Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation contributes to this increase. Everyone is required to read and interpret Material Safety Data Sheets as a preventative health and safety measure. How do statistics translate to a workplace context? Statistics can be an extremely useful tool; however, they are also subject to abuse. Special efforts must be made to ensure that the statistics related to a literacy profile of Canadian adults are interpreted accurately. One of the most common errors made in attempting to grapple with the scope of literacy issues, is to extrapolate national statistics to specific workplaces. This practice is dangerous - as well as invalid. It cannot be assumed that since 16% of Canada's adults have limited reading skills then 320 out of a workforce of 2000 have limited reading skills (Statistics Canada, 1990). Each workplace is unique and is characterized by a particular mix of situational factors. Following that line of logic, there is no one literacy program model that will be appropriate to every situation. A single factor, such as whether the labour-management relationship is collaborative or adversarial, may influence the type of model selected. An approach that is successful in an office setting in downtown Toronto may not work at all in a manufacturing plant in Brandon, Manitoba. Developing a literacy program for workers requires an active search for a model that is sensitive to specific needs and circumstances. Taylor et al., - Page 27 A Balanced Perspective International Literacy Year helped elevate literacy to a high-profile national interest. Emerging from that positive framework is a concern that the true dynamics of the issue - particularly as is related to the workplace - are misunderstood by many. Many people have the impression that a shockingly large percentage of the workforce sign their name with an X and can't add two plus two. Even worse is the impression that critical thinking skills, among those who have difficulty reading or writing, are marred. These, and similar myths, act as barriers to those who wish to improve their basic skills. A balanced viewpoint recognizes that the skills of workers are one of many factors that affect economic growth. Equally pertinent components include business investment in new equipment, work processes (i.e. the way work is structured and jobs are designed), fiscal policy, and the amount of money allocated to training. The promotion of a balanced perspective on literacy in Canadian society is in everyone's best interests. The labour movement inherently understands that some people can read the world far better than those who can read the word. The literacy profile of Canadian adults suggests that opportunities to build on this understanding must be created. Where possible, forging partnerships on the basis of mutual interests is a workable plan of action, provided that the union is an equal partner from the outset. Labour and management have vital interests that often allow them to jointly plan for change in the workplace. The challenge of the 21st Century is to excel in the development of Canada's human resources. This vision requires a strong public and private commitment to education and training. The power to grow and thrive in the midst of change is a basic concern of each and every Canadian. AN EDUCATION PERSPECTIVE ON BASIC SKILLS TRAINING Lessons to be Learned With many provincial governments developing policy, sound incentive grant criteria and the identification of standards of good practice in workplace literacy, important lessons can be learned from these modest beginnings. As suggested by Johnston (1991) and Taylor, Lewe and Draper (1991), many organizations have been successful in bridging education and training with a new emphasis on basic skills training. Perhaps by examining some of these early experiences, we will be better positioned to ask questions that will help advance effective programming. Most literacy educators in this field would agree that workplace literacy requires a knowledge of the world of work and an understanding of how basic skills instruction relates to the unique characteristics of the workplace. Many such educators with which I have talked, working in programs in existence for the last couple of years, feel these two characteristics are vital ingredients for the planning of any such intitiative. As well, drawing from their successes and failures, there also seems to be a common set of principles or requirements for Taylor et al., - Page 28 developing and implementing a workplace basic training program. (Draper & Taylor, 1991). Getting to Know the Structure of the Organization For practitioners who have already determined a readiness in the business community to initiate a workplace literacy intervention, the first important requirement involves knowing the structure of the organization which will be collaborating in the program. It is essential to become aware of the chain of command, the role of unions, the commitment of the organization to employees, the overall goals of the organization and whether or not there are internal or external conflicts within the company. All of this foundational information provides an awareness of the organizational process which is at the heart of any basic skills training program. Needless to say, this organizational process is unique to each workplace. In some of the larger and medium-sized companies, organizing structures such as Equal Employment Opportunities Committees or Reclassification and Manpower Adaptability Committees supported the overall development of the initiative. In smaller companies, one often finds a less formal group usually consisting of the owner and front-line supervisor, providing the thrust and direction for the literacy training. As a rule of thumb, getting to know the organizational process and identifying support and potential barriers seems to be a fundamental requirement for the development of a workplace literacy intervention. Conducting a Situational Analysis A second requirement for developing a workplace program is commitment to conduct a situational analysis. This type of analysis entails an examination of the perceived needs of an organization to determine whether the problems have educational solutions and whether the educational solutions have a literacy component. In some of the existing programs, both the company and committee structures determined that before introducing a new technology, a pre-training component was required which included basic skills in literacy and numeracy. In other programs, based on a needs assessment of middle managers, union representatives and previous unsuccessful experiences, ESL and literacy training were integrated. What seems to be common in many of these initiatives is that, for each workplace, a different type of situational analysis is required. However, the information from this examination of the organization provides a clearly marked roadmap for guiding the program development. In other words, by conducting a needs assessment both the climate and resources of the organization become apparent. Negotiation Thirdly, any effective workplace intervention involves negotiation and a contract with the organization to provide the literacy services. Deciding on who the partners are, the services to be offered, the content of the program, participation details, program structure and schedule, resource commitment, assessment strategy, and evaluation procedures are all important components of a program that require some type of contractual agreement. After such an agreement to proceed has been made, the actual program planning can begin. As part of the planning Taylor et al., - Page 29 strategy, it is important to develop a program that meets the need of the organization and at the same time is perceived by participants to be worthwhile. By soliciting input from management, labour, trainers and workers, as was the case in many of the existing programs, an agenda for partnership building can be initiated at this early stage and further developed throughout the intervention. Effective Program Evaluation A fourth requirement in developing and implementing basic skills training is the continuous, circular process of an effective program evaluation. This exercise should not end program planning but rather be an integral part of it. Measuring the effectiveness of a workplace literacy program should involve thinking through some of the following steps: What are the goals of the program? What objectives will be set to reach those program goals? What testing procedures or assessment techniques will be used? What is the time line of these goals? Who will be involved with the evaluation and how will the results of the evaluation be used? And how has the program affected the training policies or workplace orgnization? Underlying each of these questions is the increasing awareness that confirming evidence such as demonstrated improvements in performing job-related literacy tasks or program impacts may be more useful than the self-reports of those involved. Although this is a new area of literacy evaluation, some program designs are beginning to indicate the relationship between literacy abilities and productivity, and specifically how the program intends to identify the expected outcomes. While there is no one formula or prescription for successfully implementing a basic skills training program across the varied occupational sectors, there now appears to be some markers on the roadmap. These efforts should be applauded because they help orient and point directions for the next part of the journey. Given the evolving nature of the field, however, it is our challenge to find as many routes as possible to end up at the same destination. CONCLUDING COMMENTS Deepening the Dialogue and Increasing Action Any discussion on a topic such as workforce literacy with members from business, labour and education engenders an opportunity for a deeper understanding of what is working and what could work better. Such is the case in this account. Embedded in each position or viewpoint are the questions that now require answers. First, if the business community needs to be convinced that workplace literacy is an investment in survival, then what specific types of concise and factual information are needed? Second, if literacy programs are to empower workers, then what are the impacts on the workplace structure? Third, even if there has been only a small degree of success in delivering workplace literacy programs, how do we speak about this so that others may see themselves in the experience? Although some pioneering efforts are being made by business, labour and education to move workplace literacy from the shelf to the floor, the fact that there are no quick solutions suggests that Taylor et al., - Page 30 the time is ripe for innovation. REFERENCES ABC Canada (1991). WORKPLACE LITERACY. An introductory guide for employers. Halifax, Nova Scotia. Brown, R. (1991). SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: HOW THE POLITICS OF LITERACY SHAPES THINKING IN THE CLASSROOM. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Business Council for Effective Literacy (January 1992). Talking heads: Issues and challenges in adult literacy. BCEL NEWSLETTER. Canadian Federation of Labour (1991). Ottawa, Ontario: Literacy for workers. Draper, J., & Taylor, M. (1991). ISSUES IN ADULT LITERACY AND BASIC EDUCATION: CANADA. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Johnston, W. (1991). 1991 INVENTORY OF WORKPLACE LITERACY PROGRAMS. Halifax, Nova Scotia: ABC Canada. Sarmiento, F., & Kay, A. (1990). WORKER-CENTRED LEARNING: A UNION GUIDE TO WORKPLACE LITERACY. Washington, D.C.: AFL-CIO Human Resources Development Institute, Washington, D.C. Statistics Canada (1990). Adult literacy in Canada. Ottawa, Canada. Taylor, M., Lewe, G., & Draper, J. (1991). BASIC SKILLS FOR THE WORKPLACE. Toronto: Culture Concepts Inc. _______________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 BOOK REVIEW by Terrence R. Redding Smith, Page (1990). KILLING THE SPIRIT: HIGHER EDUCATION IN AMERICA. New York, NY: Viking Penguin Books. KILLING THE SPIRIT asserts that tradition and the academy's resistance to change create an educational environment in which the mind is not liberated but systematically confined and forced to sameness of thought. This well-written 305 page book powerfully develops this thesis with historical examples from Page Redding - Page 31 Smith's personal experiences. Smith cites two major taboos that can lead to student academic failure and a no-vote of confidence for extending a young scholar's work. First is failure to stay within the confines imposed by the leaders of the academy, and second trying to introduce new thought, or even a fresh philosophy of thought. Some readers will view Smith's potrayal of the academy through his personal experience as limiting; others will see it as adding credibility and a richness that can only be present in the writings of one who has lived it. This book requires its readers to accept or reject Smith's ideas. In either case, readers will be motivated to champion their notion of higher education. For continuing adult educators and members of the academy committed to continuing higher education, KILLING THE SPIRIT is a caution against adopting too narrow a point of view, and being too quick to move toward the mainstream of American higher education. For the members of the academy who view themselves as safely near the middle of their discipline, the book pleads that they take a critical look and evaluate whether they collectively stifle new bright minds and drive new entrants to conformity. Using a compelling literary style, Smith portrays events in their historical context. The reader is, therefore, able to understand the event, some of its causes, and eventual effects. The introduction is especially appealing because, from its overview of the book, the reader cannot only anticipate the tone of the remainder of the book but more importantly understand the author's motive for writing it. In his first chapter, "Mapping the Desert," Smith explores the current situation found on college and university (which he calls the academy) campuses. A key ingredient to his position, that the academy is approaching moral bankruptcy, is illustrated by his examples of academic fundamentalism. Smith suggests that at the heart of academic fundamentalism is the notion that religion in any context has no place in science and research. In one example, Gothic architecture is taught by a professor with no mention made of underlying religious passions that fueled its creation. A second example refers to a work on Populism, a native American political movement, but fails to mention evangelical Protestantism out of which Populism rose. Smith queried the author of the work on Populism, about the omission, and found that the author thought omitting religion was being more "scientific" (p.96). These and other examples of excessive emphasis on "science" at the expense of teaching leave the reader questioning how American higher education ever reached such a sad situation. Smith believes that most members of academe perceive themselves as liberal, not inclined to be materialistic or competitive and vaguely "socialistic" (p.146). Smith, observing their actual behavior, portrays them as highly competitive and Redding - Page 32 ambitious. They compete at every level, first for grades, then admission to prestigious institutions for graduate study, and finally with one another for tenure. Rather than being liberated, Smith thinks that, "He/she thus guards that investment of time jealously, fends off intruders, and does his/her best to improve the return on his/her investment through the various career strategies that we are familiar with" (p. 190). This boils down to intentionally or unintentionally opposing anything that might undermine academic standing through the introduction of new thought and rejecting notions that could challenge longly held beliefs and positions. The author's writing style is at its best when he discusses historical aspects of education. His outline of the American educational system and its beginnings is the clearest, most concise writing I have seen on this topic. While providing a sense of the times in which important decisions were being made, he quickly moves the reader through the history of the American college and university. His introduction to American higher education begins with the Protestant Reformation and the roots of its traditions of learning with "The Seven Liberal Arts," established in the medieval university. From that point, he describes the founding of early American colleges in the colonies and the effect that religious and political ideas had on their formation. Of particular interest, was the description of the educational positions taken by the founding fathers. Most readers will be familiar with Jefferson and Franklin's educational ideas, but they may not have been fully exposed to the practical concepts of Noah Webster. Many reading this book will appreciate that we can know very little of "who" we are if we fail to learn "why" we are. Smith provides the "why" about American higher education. After laying the foundation in his chapter "The Beginning," he continues with the history of American higher education in a chapter entitled, "The New Republic." He explores the practical education versus classical education debate as well as the rapid spread of new denominational colleges to the west, fueled by graduates from such institutions as Yale. He discusses the problems associated with high graduate drop-out rates. Smith attributes the relatively high literacy rate in early America and the ready availability of colleges to the efforts of the various Christian denominations, noting however, that quality became an issue. The United States came to have too many institutions and little standardization in evaluating curriculum or content. Quality higher education and the pursuit of knowledge, became associated with the new universities in Germany and older colleges associated with Europe. After clearly establishing this historical background, Smith walks the reader through the formation of universities in the United States and the difficulties associated with that effort. Discussing the establishment of graduate programs in Redding - Page 33 America and the point that it was not an overnight or automatic success, he takes time to describe the social and political scene to maintain the historical context. Hardly a paragraph goes by without the reader being exposed to a concept or idea interwoven with the history of its time. Tying this effort to the formation of the Land Grant Institutions, he completes our understanding of how American higher education reached its current state. To defend his position he includes numerous citations to support his argument. Smith attacks a number of the academy's valued institutions. As soon as Smith begins to discuss recent educational history KILLING THE SPIRIT becomes more detailed, even tedious to read. Smith brings the reader to understand the historical relevance of how the Ph. D. and tenure system came to exist, the importance placed on higher education by society and the emergence of research and research dollars as a compelling force that continues to shape higher education today. Smith summarizes his concept of the value of the Ph. D. with these words: "There seems little doubt from the perspective of the present day that the introduction of the Ph. D. as the so-called union card of the profession was, if not a disaster, an unfortunate and retrograde step" (p. 108). Citing William James, Smith selected these words and phrases to describe the Ph. D. as "the Mandrian disease", a "'Teutonic' invention, completely foreign to American ways". He balances his citations with examples of the inappropriate value placed on the Ph. D. and with its granting institution and argues that the length of time it takes to achieve a Ph. D. in some disciplines is determined more by the discipline's desire to be taken seriously than a real need for arduous preparation. He describes the process as containing unnecessary impediments. Citing his own unnecessary learning of multiple foreign languages he reports: Indeed, three or four years after I had displayed my "mastery" of German, I couldn't translate a page of German history text, and would bet a bundle that the same would be true for the vast majority of my fellow "Americanists," as we are generically referred to. One might ask why reason or humanity didn't prevail and allow such meaningless (and time- consuming) requirements to be dropped. Well, primarily because it had no rational basis to begin with; ... (p. 110). Of more importance than unnecessary impediments to Smith is the transition from humanities grounded in logical positivism to humanities based on analytic philosophy. This transition, according to Smith, reduces the humanities until nothing of real value is left. Recent educational history is a personal history for Smith. It is clear that the distance of time, and its ability to provide natural insulation between a historian and the human events of which he writes, has not eased the burden for Smith when explaining these more recent topics. His presentation of Redding - Page 34 recent educational history reflects his personal involvement and is opinionated, but, straightforward. The five longest chapters in the book are "The Revolt of the Youth," "Publish or Perish," "Teaching," "The Social Nonscience," and "The Inhuman Humanities," These chapters lay out the faults of American higher education and the cause of dissatisfaction. Central to the notion of a student revolt was the idea that universities lacked "soul" and were preoccupied with piling up vast amounts of incomprehensible facts without being concerned about "eternal truths." The terminology and goals of a nation concerned with the war in Vietnam and the expansion of capitalism were thrown back in the faces of educators by dissatisfied students. Smith portrays young academics as prostituting their scholarly pursuits in an effort to gain academic recognition and tenure at the expense of good teaching. Teaching is supposed to benefit from research, but Smith believes it does not, leading the academy instead to virtually ignore the accomplishments of teachers. The result is that successful new academics are often the least original and most likely to be conformists. Smith makes explicit his views with these words: The first fact to be established is that there is no direct relationship between research and teaching. The notion that research enhances teaching, although thoroughly discredited by experience and research, is one that lingers on and is often trotted out by the ill-informed as a justification for the publish-or-perish policy. Teaching should be founded in student needs, a concept central to Smith's essay on teaching. He abhors the dull lecture or the the dispirited graduation exercise: instead he applauds the the emotional presentation of a thought, ideal, or series of facts that strikes a resonant emotional cord in the listeners. He encourages the notion of "festival" as one of the oldest forms of human expression and joy. Each of these chapters contain sufficient content to justify their treatment as separate books. Smith closes KILLING THE SPIRIT by denouncing efforts to make social sciences into true sciences, noting strongly and repeatedly that much of the usefulness of the social sciences has been removed as they align themselves with social causes while avioding political causes and ignoring the impact of religion on humanity. To state that knowledge is to be used and that it does not mature into wisdom in and of itself, he quotes Sir Walter Moberly: "If you want a bomb the chemistry department will teach you how to make it, if you want a cathedral the department of architecture will teach you how to build it, if you want a healthy body the department of physiology and medicine will teach you how to tend it. But when you ask whether Redding - Page 35 and why you should want bombs or cathedrals or healthy bodies, the university .. .. .. must be content to be dumb and impotent. It can give help and guidance in all things subsidiary but not in the attainment of the one thing needful. In living their lives the young are left 'the sport of every random gust.' But for the educator this is abdication .. .. .. We have paid the tithe or mint and anise and cummin, and have omitted the weightier matters of the law, judgement, mercy and faith (p. 295-296)." In his closing chapter "Reviving the Spirit," Smith tells the reader that those things which have been disregarded in building modern American university must be regained: that science needs religion, that the teaching become more important to institutions of learning than research, that the complexity of institutions be simplified. Schools must be down sized for students to find a place in more, but smaller, campuses. With the example of the California system, and his own institution at Santa Cruz, he demonstrates how such down sizing could take place. KILLING THE SPIRIT argues forcefully for change. However, Page Smith's argument for change would be strengthened if he provided citations of others in the academy who were also calling for change. It is an excellent book for any academic's "must read" list. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 ___________________________________________________ CUMMULATIVE INDEX OF NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 1 Number 1 ___________________________________________________ Adult Education in Nicaragua: Adapting and Growing in a Changing Reality by Samuel Simpson Volume 2 Number 1 ____________________________________________________ Propaganda in Adult Education by Richard Novak The Informing of Adult Education by Adult Development by Nancy E. Hagan Procedures for Writers in the Field of Adult Education: How to Make Your Writings More Consistently Accessible within Computerized Information Databases by Judith Gwinn Adrian Index - Page 36 Feminist Methodology: A new Way of Knowing? by Carolyn Chase Volume 2 Number 2 __________________________________________________ Into 'Terra Incognito': Considerations on the 'Timeliness' and 'Importance' of the Carnegie Corporation's Early Involvement in Adult Education by Michael Law Women and Literacy in Tanzania by Sharon Cramer Bell Physical Learning Environments: Why Be Concerned? by Rodney Fulton Introducing Metaphors of Chaos to Adult Education by Robert Domaingue Volume 3 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Comparison of Computer and Audio ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:44:17 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:14:50 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL6N2 (1/1) [2/2] Archive HORIZONS, file vol6n2. Part 1/1 (subpart 2/2), total size 105547 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ Teleconferencing: One instructor's View by Norman Coombs Intellectual Suppression: Australian Case Histories, Analysis and Responses by Roger Boshier Volume 4 Number 1 ___________________________________________________________ Straight Time and Standard Brand Adult Education by John Ohliger A Comparison of Folk High Schools in Denmark, and East and West Germany by Robert Wendel A Descriptive Appraisal of Functional Literacy in Nigeria by Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi Intentional Changes by David Price Volume 5 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Index - Page 37 Community Adult Education In America: An Overview by Michael W. Galbraith and David Price Community Adult Education In Developing Countries by Linda Ziegahn Facilitated Community Development In A Rural Area by Allen B. Moore and Mary Anne Lahey Envisioning A Sustainable Society: Learning Our Way Out by Daniel V. Eastmond Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 ___________________________________________________ Technology in the Classroom of the Future by Wayne Hurtshuh Model Building and Strategic Planning in Continuing Higher Education by Paul J. Edelson Culture Wars by Michael E. Ehringhaus Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 ___________________________________________________ Characteristics of Adult Education Students and and the Factors Which Determine Course and Program Completion: A Review by Mary F. Sheets Working Toward More Effective Adult Christian Education: A Case Study of Youngville Baptist Church by Robert C. Ballance In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development by Susan Slusarski NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 _____________________________________________ CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, seeks manuscripts for its 1993 issues. The editors solicit submissions of original research, conceptual analyses, case studies, Manuscripts - Page 38 and book reviews relating to adult education efforts. Faculty, graduate students, practitioners, and others concerned with adult education are welcome to submit articles. Once it receives the manuscripts, NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION coordinates a double-blind review by four of its editorial board members. Submissions must be authors' original work and not previously published. Manuscript Preparation: There are no length requirements; reviewers will evaluate articles to see that the subject and substance warrants the length. Submitted articles should include the title of the manuscript, full names, institutional affiliations, and positions of authors. Manuscripts should conform to the rules governing manuscript style and references outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), Third Edition. Text and references normally underscored should instead be typed in upper case (all caps). Authors should use written text explanations of concepts and data rather than diagrams or graphics, but simple tabular data, may be included. Forms of Submission: NEW HORIZONS accepts manuscripts in the following forms: 1) Electronic mail transmitted electronically to the NEW HORIZONS electronic address: horizons@suvm (for BITNET) or horizons@suvm.acs.syr.edu. (for Internet). 2) Electronic copies stored in ASCII, the universal computer language, and mailed on floppy disk to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse NY 13244-1270. 3) Printed copies mailed to NEW HORIZONS, Syracuse University, Adult Education Program, 350 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244-1270. Authors who submit printed manuscripts that are ultimately accepted for publication will provide, if possible, their manuscripts in electronic form. About the Journal: NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, founded in 1987, is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University. It is electronically transmitted to subscribers' personal computers via mainframe computers. Graduate student editors manage the journal in cooperation with an international editorial board also comprised of graduate students. There is no cost for subscription to NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, since issues are sent electronically to subscribers of the Adult Education Network (AEDNET). Manuscripts - Page 39 Journal subscription and membership in AEDNET is made by request via electronic mail to aednet@suvm (for BITNET) or aednet@suvm.acs.syr.edu (for Internet). NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is indexed and abstracted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------