From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:44:29 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:15:43 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL7N1 (1/1) [1/2] Archive HORIZONS, file vol7n1. Part 1/1 (subpart 1/2), total size 135124 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ ********************************************************** ********************************************************** ******************** ********************** ************* ************* ******* ******** **** ***** *** *** ** ** * NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION * * ISSN. 1062-3183 * ********************************************************** Volume 7 Number 1 Spring 1993 ********************************************************** EDITORS Charles Awasu.................Syracuse University Daniel V. Eastmond............Syracuse University Ina Sue Brown.................Syracuse University COPY EDITOR Patricia Soper................Syracuse University EDITORIAL BOARD Robert Balance................North Carolina State University Sue Collard...................University of British Columbia Wayne Hartschuh...............Arizona State University Janice B. Johnson.............University of British Columbia Oma Morey.....................University of Texas at Austin Christine Olgren..............University of Wisconsin Lynn Paul.....................University of Montana Anita Prieto..................University of Missouri-Columbia Alice Schawo..................University of Missouri-Columbia Susan B. Slusarski............Syracuse University Edward W. Taylor..............University of Georgia Kimberly A. Townsend..........Pennsylvania State University Patricia Ann Weeks............Queensland University of Technology _____________________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION is a refereed journal published by Syracuse University's School of Education with funding from the Kellogg Foundation. The journal is managed by graduate students in several countries and is electronically transmitted via the Adult Education Network (AEDNET), accessible through BITNET and Internet. There is no cost for NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION; it is sent to all subscribers of AEDNET. PAGE 2 N E W H O R I Z O N S I N A D U L T E D U C A T I O N CONTENTS Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 I N T R O D U C T I O N Editor's Preface................................2 A R T I C L E S Radical Adult Education With Older Persons Friedrich, Eric..................................3 Theory-Based Practice: A Model SDLS Program Lewis, John, L. and Mullins, Barbara, K..........11 The Need for Continuing Education for the Deaf: Are Adult Educators Listening? Townsend, Kimberly, A............................22 Towards an Anti-Racist, Feminist Teaching Method Das Gupta, Tania.................................33 F O R Y O U R I N F O R M A T I O N Cumulative Index to New Horizons.................51 NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 EDITOR'S PREFACE This issue of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION contains four articles on very diverse topics. Eric Friedrich's article, RADICAL ADULT EDUCATION WITH OLDER PERSONS suggests using Paolo Friere's methods to empower older adults. It includes a literature review, addresses issues relative to self-directed learning for older adults suggests reasons for using a Freirian approach with older adults in congregate settings. THEORY-BASED PRACTICE: A MODEL SDLS PROGRAM by John L. Lewis and Barbara K. Mullins describes the Adult Education Colloquium (AEC) at Florida State University. Using it as a model program, the authors, who are Preface - Page 3 graduates of the program, discuss the importance of Student-Directed Learning Structures (SDLS) in graduate adult education programs. They propose that an SDLS integrates theory and practice to achieve goals critical to developing professional adult educators. In THE NEED FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION FOR THE DEAF: ARE ADULT EDUCATORS LISTENING? Kimberly A. Townsend addresses the need for improved educational programs for deaf adults. She includes an historical perspective of the philosophy and methodology for educating the deaf and makes recommendations for adult educators seeking to improve educational instruction and programming for deaf adult learners. Tania Das Gupta, in TOWARDS AN ANTI-RACIST, FEMINIST TEACHING METHOD, reviews literature on feminist and anti-racist teaching, identifying its main elements and their implications for curriculum and classroom dynamics. She also includes suggestions for its implementation into curriculum and foe creation of an institutional climate conducive to anti-racist and feminist education. This is the last issue of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION emanating from Syracuse University. The next publication will come from Nova University in Ft. Lauderdale, the new home of NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION. _______________________________________________________ NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 RADICAL ADULT EDUCATION WITH OLDER PERSONS Eric J. Friedrich Graduate Student North Carolina State University Paulo Freire, a proponent of radical adult education, proposed a theory to liberate oppressed persons through education. Growing up in Brazil, Freire was greatly influenced by that country's Acao Popular Movement, a movement which began in the early 1960s. According to the tenets of the Acao Popular Movement, consciousness is raised when individuals critically examine the world in order to facilitate some sort of change. Such change is known as humanization. The end product of the process is the creation of a utopian society (Jarvis, 1987). Freire's theory is based on this approach to the change process. This paper argues for using Freire's method with a new Friedrich - page 4 group of people who might fall into an oppressed population designation: the older adult learner. Freire's approach may be a particularly efficient type of self-directed learning for older adults because they face numerous developmental challenges within their socio-cultural contexts. A review of current literature on the education of older adults and a brief review of Freire's theory precedes the argument. Literature on Older Adult Education and Learning Existing literature concerning the education of older adults suggests that few older adults take part in the formal educational programs currently being offered. Only four to nine percent of people over age 55 participate in formal educational programs (Wasserman, 1976; National Center for Education Statistics, 1980). Barriers which might prevent participation by older adults in such programs include: lack of transportation, health problems, insecurity in a learning environment, and institutional barriers including location and scheduling of courses (Peterson, 1981). Even though there is a low participation rate in formal educational programs by older adults, Hiemstra (1976) found that the average older adult spends 325 hours per year on learning projects, on approximately 3.3 learning projects per year. The majority of the learning for these projects was self-directed, independent learning, indicating older adults prefer to take personal responsibility for their learning whenever possible (Hiemstra, 1976). In an earlier study, Tough (1971) found an even greater participation rate for adults: 816 hours on 8.3 projects per year. Tough's population, however, was younger than the average age of 68 in Hiemstra's study. Interestingly, there seems to be a relationship between self-directed learning and life satisfaction. Brockett (1987) found a link between life satisfaction and self- directed learning in five of the eight factors of the Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale (LSES) (Salamon & Conte, 1981). There is a significantly positive relationship between perceived life satisfaction and one's views of having the skills and attitudes needed in self-directed learning (Brockett, 1987). This relationship suggests that a person who is satisfied with life is also likely to be self-directed. The converse also true. Unfortunately, many older learners are neither able nor ready to be self-directed at all times. Ripple and Janquish (1981) found that "self-esteem appears to be a Friedrich - page 5 key variable in implementing educational interventions with older adults, and success of such interventions depends on supporting it, capitalizing on it, and building on it" (p. 9). Brockett (1987) concluded that adult education can promote self-directed learning opportunities to increase independence and life satisfaction in older adults, and Hiemstra (1976) found that older adults prefer to take personal responsibility for their learning whenever possible. Given these studies, it would seem that Friere's self-directed learning approach may be a useful teaching method for this population. His approach could be used to deal with the self-esteem and self-confidence problems facing older adults as well as socio-cultural issues and oppressive situations in general which are encountered by many older adults. Freire's Theory of Adult Education Freire's theory of adult education, originally developed to liberate oppressed persons in his native Brazil, offers a viable approach for older learners. Freire (1982) opposes the banking concept of education in which the student is merely a passive receptacle of information. In the banking concept, the authoritarian teacher (oppressor) describes what the student (the oppressed) should know; the teacher controls the knowledge, and, to an extent, the perception of reality which is presented to the student. This approach to education shuts the student away from an exchange of ideas. It allows for no discussion or critical analysis. The teacher has all the power, while the student has none. The students absorb information like mindless tape recording machines. Consequently, the process is advantageous to the oppressors who create unquestioning individuals to fit into their world without ever challenging that world. The alternative to the banking method is problem-posing education. The teacher not only teaches, but also learns from students as both sides engage in dialogue. Students and teachers function on an equal level and learn from each other, a process which involves cognition, not just the transfer of information. In this method, there may be teacher/student contradiction and, whatever the disagreement, it must be resolved. The teacher not only teaches, but learns from students as they all engage in dialogue. Students and teachers are placed on an equal level, and learn from each other. The students are no longer passive receptacles, but now actively engage in dialogue, critically analyzing information and ideas. Friedrich - page 6 Students develop the skills to perceive, in critical fashion, how they exist in the world. The heightened awareness or consciousness of students, then, enables them to transform their world through a process which Freire terms as "conscientization." Individuals become "knowing subjects" cognizant of both their socio- cultural of their capacity to change that reality (Freire, 1982). While the banking method attempts to repress consciousness, problem-posing attempts to raise it and create a critical intervention in reality. Most people live their lives with blinders on, never really questioning their day-to-day existence. Freire challenges the individual to become aware of his or her consciousness. Unlike animals who are merely conscious, people can reflect upon their consciousness, and alter their situation in life. For Freire, education functions in one of two ways. It can transmit information to the younger generation and indoctrinate them into the given culture; or it can promote the "practice of freedom" in which individuals critically examine their own reality and change it to better their situation (Boston, 1972). When applying Freire's teachings and methods, North American educators should realize that he developed these techniques for his own culture within a Third World country. Consequently, they can not rigidly apply his methods, but must adapt them to their own cultures and learn from their own struggles. Certainly, education for older adults is one area where North American culture can learn from Freire's principles. Some of his ideas could prove to be beneficial in working with the elderly who, generally, tend to be an oppressed group (Hooyman & Kiyak, 1988). It is estimated that by the year 2000, over 15% of the population will be 65 or older. Although elderly persons are highly regarded in some countries, in the United States and other industrialized nations, they often suffer a loss of status, a reduced number of personal contacts, and a lowered income, largely because our culture tends to fear the aging process and view it negatively. Robert Butler, former director of the National Institute on Aging, coined the term "ageism" to describe stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes about old age (Butler, 1975). As with other types of prejudice such as sexism and racism, ageism attributes certain characteristics to all members of a group because of one characteristic they hold in common (in this case old age). Studies examining a variety of cultural influences, including children's and adolescents' Friedrich - page 7 literature (Blue, 1978; Peterson and Karnes, 1976), contemporary fiction and poetry (Sohngen, 1977; Sohngen and Smith, 1978), and popular jokes (Davis, 1977; Richman, 1977) revealed negative stereotypes of elderly persons. In addition, a study by Rodin and Langer (1980) showed that negative labeling and stigmatization of the aged may contribute to behavior which actually confirms negative stereotypes of aging and leads to lowered self-esteem and redued feelings of control. Because stereotypes and social labels are basically summaries of cultural expectations, these expectations may be assumed to affect all the members of the culture, including those who are labeled. Ageism may lead to discriminatory behavior against older adults. For example, the existence of mandatory retirement which is an obvious form of societal discrimination based solely on age (Hooyman & Kiyak, 1988). Discrimination occurs in other ways, as well as creating barriers to employment. Age discrimination is the fastest growing form of unfair dismissal litigation (Hooyman & Kiyak, 1988). In a 1981 survey of 552 employers, 20% stated that employees over the age of 50 have fewer opportunities for promotion or training, and 12% said that pay raises are not as large for older employees as for younger ones (Mercer, 1981). Given the oppressive situations in which many elderly individuals find themselves, Freire's (1982) idea of education involving critical dialogue to create a heightened awareness of the socio-cultural reality could prove to be extremely important. It is imperative that a teacher refrain from teaching only what he or she thinks is important for the elderly person to know because that teaching may be biased by negative cultural stereotypes. Rather, the teacher and student should participate in dialogue which fosters critical analyses of important issues and questions, heightening the awareness of participants who may then transform their reality. The teacher-student will find no better group from whom to learn than the elderly, who have experienced much in their lifetimes. Freire's approach can also benefit elderly persons by providing them with a sense of control in their lives. Most elderly persons feel a loss of control once their jobs are gone, their finances are lowered, or their adult children take over some of their responsibilities. The institutionalized elderly, in particular, have few opportunities to exercise control in their lives, despite the fact that feeling in control of one's life is crucial to good mental health (Goleman, 1986; Seligman, 1975). Nursing home residents live in "decision free" environments and are Friedrich - page 8 led to believe they no longer control their own lives (Langer and Rodin, 1976). Freire's method of teaching, in which the teacher does not take control, but rather allows free dialogue and critical analysis, could give elderly individuals a sense of control. They could be part of the decision- making process, free to provide their valuable, experienced input. Teacher and student would be on an equal level, allowing the older individual to achieve a higher sense of self-esteem. Another aspect of Freire's theory may apply to elderly persons who are experiencing role loss. As people grow older, their roles in life may become more ambiguous. Guidelines about the requirements of roles such as nurturing parent, boss, etc., are no longer clear to either to themselves or others (Rosow, 1985). Burgess (1960), finds the retired person "roleless." There are no clear societal rules to guide post-retirement behavior. This could be a period for greater authenticity, a chance for such individuals to create their own meaning apart from the rules of society. Freire challenges learners to create knowledge and meaning as a result of a constant problematizing of their existential situation (Freire, 1982). Certainly the "roleless" elderly person could benefit from this approach. Yet another way that Freire's theory may apply to the elderly person is the notion that humans are unfinished beings; they are in the process of becoming. This unfinished character of humans, along with the changing character of reality, requires that education be an ongoing activity. Therefore, people have not finished their education when they reach old age; rather it is a lifelong process. CONCLUSION Older learners prefer to take personal responsibility for their learning, and participate in self-directed learning projects to a greater extent than formal learning experiences. This selfdirected type of learning appears to be related to life satisfaction and independence in older adults. Because older adults face numerous developmental challenges and potentially oppressive situations, a self-directed approach such as Friere's, which helps individuals examine how they exist in society and make desired changes, may be very well-suited for use with such a population. Freire's approach may be appropriate in settings for congregate living such as retirement communities or Friedrich - page 9 nursing homes. As cited, the institutionalized elderly, in particular, have fewer opportunities to exercise control in their lives, in spite of the importance of a sense of control (Goleman, 1986; Seligman, 1975). Freire's self-directed approach may lead to a greater sense of control for participants and increase life satisfaction in participants as suggested by Brockett's (1987) study. Many of the barriers to participating in formal educational programs could be overcome by taking the class to the older adult. McClusky (1980) cited evidence that settings for congregate living are becoming increasingly popular locations for education. Using a Freirian approach with an older population may bring numerous potential benefits. This approach may empower older adults and assist them in facing some of the developmental challenges encountered as they grow older. Radical adult educational methods may be beneficial to a variety of populations, and its application with different groups should be explored. REFERENCES Blue, G. F. (1978). The aging as portrayed in realistic fiction for children, 1945-1975. GERONTOLOGIST, 18, 187-192. Boston, B. (1972). Paulo Freire: Notes of a loving critic. In S. Grabowski (Ed.), PAULO FREIRE: A REVOLUTIONARY DILEMMA FOR THE ADULT EDUCATOR (pp. 83-92). Syracuse, NY: Publications in Continuing Education. Brockett, R. G. (1987). Life satisfaction and learner selfdirection: Enhancing quality of life during the later years. EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY, 12, 225-237. Burgess, E. W. (1960). AGING IN WESTERN SOCIETIES. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Butler, R. (1975). WHY SURVIVE: BEING OLD IN AMERICA. New York: Harper & Row. Davis, L. J. (1977). Attitudes toward old age and aging as shown by humor. GERONTOLOGIST, 17, 220-226. Freire, P. (1982). PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED. New York: Continuum. Goleman, D. (1986, October 7). Feeling of control viewed as central in mental health. NEW YORK TIMES, pp. 1 (L), 19 (N). Friedrich - page 10 Hiemstra, R. (1976). The older adult's learning projects. EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY, 1, 331-341. Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, J. (1988). SOCIAL GERONTOLOGY: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Jarvis, P. (1987). Paulo Freire. In TWENTIETH CENTURY THINKERS IN ADULT EDUCATION (pp. 265-279). New York: Croom Helm. Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, 34, 191-198. McClusky, H. Y. (1980). Education and aging. In C. Tibbitts, H. Friedsam, P. Kerschner, G. Maddox, & H. McClusky (Eds.), ACADEMIC GERONTOLOGY: DILEMMAS OF THE 1980'S (pp. 82- 87). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute of Gerontology. Mercer, W. M. (1981). EMPLOYER ATTITUDES: IMPLICATION OF AN AGING WORK FORCE. New York: William M. Mercer. National Center for Educational Statistics (1980). THE CONDITION OF EDUCATION. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Oakes, I. E. (1971). PARTICIPATION IN ADULT EDUCATION. (1969 Initial Report, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education & Welfare, National Center for Educational Statistics). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Peterson, D. A. (1981). Participation in education by older people. EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY, 7, 245-256. Peterson, D.A., & Karnes, E. L. (1976). Older people in adolescent literature. GERONTOLOGIST, 16, 225-231. Richman, J. (1977) The foolishness and wisdom of age: Attitudes toward the elderly as reflected in jokes. GERONTOLOGIST, 17, 219-229. Ripple, R. E., & Janquish, G. A. (1981). Fluency, flexibility, and originality in later adulthood. EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY, 7, 1-10. Rodin, J., & Langer, E. (1980). Aging labels: The Friedrich - page 11 decline of control and the fall of self esteem. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, 36, 2. Rosow, I. (1985). Status and role change through the life cycle. In R. H. Binstock & E. Shanas (Eds.) HANDBOOK OF AGING AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (2nd ed.) (pp. 62-93). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Salamon, M. J., & Conte, V. A. (1981). THE SALAMON- CONTE LIFE SATISFACTION IN THE ELDERLY SCALE AND THE EIGHT CORRELATES OF LIFE SATISFACTION. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, Toronto, Ontario. Seligman, M. (1975). HELPLESSNESS: ON DEPRESSION, DEVELOPMENT AND DEATH. San Francisco: Freeman. Sohngen, M., & Smith, R. J. (1978). Images of old age in poetry. GERONTOLOGIST, 18, 181-186. Tough, A. (1971). THE ADULT'S LEARNING PROJECTS (Research in Education Series No. 1). Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Wasserman, I. M. (1976). The educational interests of the elderly: A case study. EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY, 1, 323-330. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 THEORY-BASED PRACTICE: A MODEL SDLS PROGRAM John L. Lewis President Lewis' Training & Educational Consulting Services (L'TECS) Barbara K. Mullins Assistant Visiting Professor College of Education, Florida State University ABSTRACT Using the Adult Education Colloquium (AEC) at Florida State University as a model program, the authors discuss the importance of a Student-Directed Learning Structure (SDLS) in graduate adult education programs. Lewis et. al., - Page 12 The AEC, as an SDLS, combines theory and practice to: (a) promote professional development, (b) encourage self-development, (c) increase knowledge of a diverse field, and (d) provide an opportunity to contribute to the development of the adult education program. An SDLS integrates theory and practice to achieve these four goals that are critical to developing professional adult educators. INTRODUCTION A Student-Directed Learning Structure (SDLS) is a framework for learning. It facilitates the preparation of adult educators as included in the apex of the leadership pyramid suggested by Houle (1956) and Knowles (1964). This article describes how the Adult Education Colloquium (AEC) a model SDLS program at Florida State University (FSU) prepares adult educators. Although SDLS's have have existed for many years, to our knowledge the term SDLS is new. It refers to formal and informal gatherings--such as brown bag seminars, student advisory councils, and graduate seminars--focused on a given problem or issue. An SDLS receives its primary direction and focus from graduate students and: (a). provides for adult education in action, (b). encourages the pursuit of independent learning within group setting, (c). provides an opportunity for students to develop professionally in a non-threatening manner, and (d). adds flexibility for students in shaping their graduate program. An SDLS is a means of ensuring that students develop the flexibility needed to be an educator in a diverse field of practice. A model SDLS program, the AEC was started at FSU in 1987. The AEC portrays the essence and fundamental features of an SDLS. As an SDLS, it can encourage students to pursue both group and independent learning, stimulate intellectual growth, and promote the professional development implicit in the commitment of an adult educator (Constitution of the Adult Education Colloquium, 1987). The success of this model program has resulted in similar goals and objectives being adopted and adapted by Ohio State University (OSU). The AEC exemplified theory-based practice and can serve as a model SDLS program. The AEC is both a club and a class. As a club, AEC is registered with the Florida State University student government which entitles the organization to obtain financial support provided by student government. As a class, the AEC is scheduled as a colloquium that meets during the Fall and Spring semesters each academic year for one hour of graduate course credit. AEC meets once Lewis et. al., - Page 13 every two weeks for two hours. Membership in the AEC is primarily graduate students and faculty members in the adult education program. Graduate students are required to register for a minimum of three semesters of the colloquium as part of their program of study in adult education. After -hree semesters, students can continue as members and attend the colloquium without registering. However, the AEC is open to any student, in any field, whether or not they are registered for the Colloquium. Faculty responsibility rotates from semester to semester. Offering the AEC as required credit encourages graduate students to start attending AEC, after which it becomes a natural part of their academic pattern. The goals of the AEC are to: (a). promote professional development as an adult educator, (b). encourage adult self-development, (c). increase knowledge of the field, and (d). contribute to the development of an adult education graduate program. The AEC is, then, an SDLS that seeks to combine theory and practice to enhance the academic preparation of professional adult educators. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The discussion which follows illustrates the ways in which AEC integrates theory and practice to achieve the four goals that are critical to developing professional adult educators. By integrating theory and practice in an SDLS, such as the AEC, students learn to critically analyze concepts, models, and research they encounter in the literature of adult education. Furthermore, such integration guards against what Brookfield (1988) calls a discontinuity between education and practice. First Goal:Promote Professional Development as an Adult Educator Because of the diversity of the field of adult education, even its experts find it difficult to agree on the most desirable competencies for a professional adult educator (Courtney, 1989). Identifying the functions which students will have to perform as full- time adult educators (Knowles, 1962) is an important factor in planning a professional graduate program. Adult educators work in a wide variety of organizations and institutions and do not always share common goals. For example, an assortment of experiences and training is represented in the membership of the AEC. The diverse membership includes women and men of various ethnic groups and nationalities. Many members are employed full-time while attending graduate school. Their professional interests and experience include Lewis et. al., - Page 14 state government, private agencies, adult basic education, literacy, community education, international adult education, and more. Houle's (1956, 1988) program of continuing self- education for adult educators is even more pertinent today. With the rapid changes in technology and information, it is imperative that students have an opportunity, such as within an SDLS, to keep abreast of current developments. The AEC serves as an up-to-date information source about what is happening in the field by providing networking opportunities. The AEC encourages adults to extend their learning beyond the university through involvement with adult education practitioners from different agencies and organizations. The mentoring associated with the AEC is one way that graduate students are socialized into the adult education program. Many of the adult education traditions, common interests, concerns, and procedures are, intentionally and unintentionally, passed on by experienced graduate students. A new graduate student quickly discovers traditions and concerns of the adult education program through the AEC. Darley (1962) suggests that professional education should focus on developing professionals who are "open to new knowledge and new ways to make knowledge for the future" (p. 207). Student leaders in the AEC continually search for new knowledge from the outside by bringing in speakers, calling on other members (who are also professionals) to share their experience, and by supporting members who wish to attend local, regional, and national conferences. For example, the AEC has featured several nationally recognized adult educators as guest speakers -- Jerold Apps in 1988, Laurent Daloz in 1989, Sharan Merriam in 1990, and Diane Buck Briscoe in 1991. During these visits, AEC graduate students have met these influential adult educators. The Club uses student government funds and fund-raising activities to bring speakers to campus. Student government funds are also used to send AEC members to state and national meetings. Though it may be a token amount, it can sometimes mean the difference between attending or not attending a professional conference. For example, the AEC was able to help send a graduate student to the 1990 American Association for Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE) Annual Meeting in Salt Lake City. The AEC also enables graduate students to serve in leadership positions. Inexperienced students can use Lewis et. al., - Page 15 AEC meetings to develop leadership skills in a non- threatening, supportive environment. Those who have leadership experiences can further enhance those skills and talents. AEC students elect their own leaders each year and conduct meetings following parliamentary procedures outlined in Robert's Rules of Order. Leadership skills in evidence at AEC meetings include program development, facilitation of group activities, obtaining group consensus, public speaking, and team work. The AEC has come to symbolize adult education in action. In effect, the AEC serves as a real-world practicum--with voluntary participation, individual motivation, assessments of needs and interests, and other program development activities. Some of the most stimulating programs have been presented by the graduate student members of the AEC, many of whom are employees of local agencies and organizations. The educational purpose of the AEC is met by programs, presentations, and talks on topics selected by the student members. Students have a voice in shaping the agenda and curriculum for the AEC. While adult educators are concerned about recognizing students interests and needs, the AEC actually provides a structure for this to happen. The educational programs presented at the AEC complement the regular adult education curricula. Attending the AEC keeps one posted on the latest trends and issues in adult education. Liveright (1988), Jensen, Liveright, and Hallenbeck (1964) recognized that graduate programs must engender a zest for continued learning. The AEC complements the academic portion of the adult education program in a practical way that capitalizes on the diversity of its membership; provides a non-threatening atmosphere; lends a social aspect to an otherwise serious routine of classes, reading and writing; and makes available opportunities for mentoring and support that create a unique situation for the development of professional adult educators. Second Goal: Encourage Adult Self-Development Hand-in-hand with professional development is the notion of selfdevelopment. Mutual support, often lacking in a professional atmosphere, is probably the benefit most mentioned by AEC members. This support can also serve to make the "passages" or "predictable crises" (Sheehy, 1976) associated with an adult returning to graduate school much more bearable. The adult students self-development at this time can occur within a group or supporting cast. This support Lewis et. al., - Page 16 provides a sense of belonging to the adult education program. Graduate school can be a lonely educational process. This is especially apparent as one moves into the prospectus and dissertation stages of graduate work. It is encouraging to know that every two weeks a returning adult student can attend a meeting where other students, faculty, and friends offer words of support and encouragement. Individually, and as a group, returning adult students can use the AEC as an informal system for problem- solving and conflict resolution. Many graduate student problems, complaints, and concerns are handled in an unofficial manner in the AEC. Often problems are resolved between and among graduate students instead of becoming an issue or concern on which faculty must expend time and effort. An important part of the adult self-development process at this time is socializing with those who share common goals, problems, and concerns. The "meeting, greeting, and eating," while attending the AEC, serves as a meaningful social function for graduate students. Fellowship and companionship, which seem to be missing in many graduate programs, are a natural outgrowth of the AEC. The unique characteristics of adults serve as a basis for much practice and study. Readiness to learn is a trait found frequently among adults, who are often seeking solutions for the problems faced in their daily lives (Knowles, 1978, 1980). Others may wish to upgrade their career or want to learn just for the sake of learning. All of these characteristics can be found among the members of the AEC as well as among their future clientele, i.e, adults in general. As they learn about themselves, they are learning about their future students. Students close to finishing their degree, as well as professors, serve as mentors for new students. Sharing experiences can also help professors, as advisors, to recognize students' circumstances. Professors and students alike learn about the effects of critical life experiences on a student's development. At this time, students are juggling professional roles, student assignments, and family responsibilities. Sharing these experiences documents in real-life theories of adult development (Daloz, 1986). In the AEC, adults are free to search, through trial and error, without fear of institutional or interpersonal threat. More times than not during AEC meetings, students talk to each other rather than to Lewis et. al., - Page 17 faculty members, since meetings are led by graduate students. Although the meetings are "formal," there is a sense of informality about how things are done. The informal communication patterns among students and faculty promote interaction and provide a relaxed atmosphere. Also, many of the graduate students are not taking the AEC for credit and therefore are not being evaluated or graded. Students taking the AEC for credit negotiate evaluation of criteria with the faculty member of record. The atmosphere encourages the emergence of spontaneous leadership without threat of external, formal evaluation and control. The AEC allows graduate students and faculty to interact as friends-teaching-friends, with inherent mentoring and collaborative learning. All AEC members contribute through their individual talents and abilities. The organization makes use of existing values, beliefs, customs, and attitudes as a starting point for educational activities as suggested by Aker (1962). Everyone can and does make a contribution to AEC activities. These contributions may not appear of equal value; however, they are not offered in a competitive manner. Each individual contributes in his or her own special way and at an appropriate time. For example, both men and women often display their culinary arts for sampling during meetings and often share their expertise in leadership. On a practical note, the AEC members also provide each other with job placement and referral. Many a part- time job and a few professional positions have been arranged through fellow students in the AEC. Third Goal: Increase Knowledge of the Field The AEC serves as a vehicle for gaining knowledge of the field. Philosophical foundations or underpinnings offer the opportunity for graduate programs to have broad and diverse goals. Elias & Merriam (1980) proposed a range of philosophical foundations ranging from the liberals who believed in knowledge for its own sake to the radicals who believe knowledge is created by individuals. For those close to the liberal end of the continuum, the educator is one who possesses the knowledge and gives this knowledge to the student. On the other hand, the radical adult educator draws out knowledge from people so that individuals can use information and skills to improve their life situation. The diversity of philosophical perspectives can be compared to Griffin's (1971) metaphor of a garden. Whereas one can take a singular focus of a garden of radishes or a garden of roses, she proposes a Lewis et. al., - Page 18 pluralistic view which incorporates radishes and roses as well as other plants. The strength and utility of this position is that it recognizes and values the diversity of society. The AEC fulfills different purposes for different people and encourages the appreciation of alternative positions and their implications for practice. The AEC helps increase knowledge of the field by serving as an information exchange and clearinghouse. It is a network for members of the AEC to exchange information, ideas, and materials. At AEC meetings, student-to-student "educating" takes place. Comments such as, "I found this article which should interest you in your study about..." or "Here's the name of an author you should check out about the subject of...", or "I found this matrix which explains what we were discussing last week," are often heard. Graduate students have also been known to educate a professor or two concerning the latest trends in adult education. Knowledge of the field is also increased when members share their work experiences, including new developments in each professional area. Fourth Goal:Contribute to Development of an Adult Education Graduate Program. The AEC provides the structure through which students contribute to the development of the graduate program in adult education at a major state university. For many years, the AEC at FSU had been inactive. In the fall of 1987, it appeared the adult education program at FSU was going to be disbanded. With the retirement of several professors and the untimely death of another, little was left of the faculty. Members of the AEC actively served as an advocate for the adult education program--to our own faculty, to other departmental faculty, and to the Dean of the College. The AEC asked administrators and faculty of the College of Education to attend meetings and discuss future plans and intentions for the adult education program. Graduate students asked questions about the impact of possible changes or new program directions on their efforts as students. The number of students who attended these meetings and the types of questions asked showed that restructuring of the adult education program should not be taken lightly by the departmental administrators and faculty. By questioning university and college administrators, graduate students in the AEC have come to expect open access to information used in decision-making. The AEC serves as an open and continuous forum for Lewis et. al., - Page 19 discussion about proposed changes in policies or directions which could affect the adult education program. It provides the opportunity for discussion and continual renewal of the adult education program through critical evaluation, similar to the process espoused by Brookfield (1988). The AEC has helped keep open the lines of communication among all parties concerned with graduate adult education. The adult education faculty and departmental faculty chairpersons have come to view the AEC as an important "sounding board" concerning proposed policies, procedures, and changes. It has become a group which faculty see as important in obtaining input and suggestions. Using the AEC as an effective communication vehicle, the adult education students and faculty can efficiently and effectively disseminate information. Communicating both the official and unofficial word is made easier by having such a group. Two tangible examples of how communication is expedited are the AEC's Adult Education Directory, as list of names, address and phone numbers of students, faculty, and friends and "Phone Tree," a process whereby selected members share the responsibility of phoning the total membership. By having an active group of graduate students, faculty are constantly reminded of their overarching professional responsibilities. The FSU adult education faculty have been sensitized to view their academic role as encompassing more than instruction, research, and service. Faculty have a professional responsibility to do more than just move up the academic ladder. They must also serve graduate students (as symbolized by the AEC) as part of their professional responsibilities. The power of the adult education faculty as leaders in the academic community is enhanced by having this professional student group serve as a faculty leadership base. The faculty sponsorship of the AEC carries with it a sense of enhanced professionalism. An example of this enhanced professionalism was the renewal of the Colloquium in the fall of 1987. AEC members wrote letters to the Dean asking that the adult education program be continued and encouraging the hiring of new faculty as expeditiously as possible. Students served on two different college-wide search committees established to help hire new faculty members. AEC members assured each other and provided mutual support during these trying times. This was perhaps one of the most significant functions of the AEC at the Lewis et. al., - Page 20 time and certainly in the history of the organization. This mutual support and effort served as an impetus for professional growth and development for both students and faculty. The adult education faculty and students joined together as a professional team. Finally, the AEC provides a dynamic image for graduate school. Graduate students who are active, vocal, and professional build an image of a strong and vital academic program. This image is projected to the many guest speakers who have attended AEC meetings through the years. These speakers have included faculty from all departments in the College of Education, from other colleges within the University, from agencies and organizations located in the community and, as noted earlier, nationally renowned adult educators. Graduate students who conduct themselves and their organization professionally reflect well on the adult education faculty sponsors and the adult education program. CONCLUSION The AEC at FSU is a model SDLS program that combines theory and practice, promotes professional development and self-development, increases knowledge of a diverse field, and provides an opportunity to contribute to the development of the adult education program. These four goals are reflected in the written comments submitted by AEC members at an evaluation meeting held on April 2, 1990. Typical statements are as follows: "It provides a forum to share and draw from the experiences of others." "The Colloquium enables me to understand what the adult education program is all about in a more anxiety-free atmosphere." "It is a chance to experience the student group's expression of its own programmatic and professional needs and see how they are dealt with in a group setting." "Birds of a feather flock together--the Colloquium helps us get to know who is in the adult education program, to ask/get/give help to each other, and to have some place (club) where you know you belong." "It provides an opportunity for collaboration and interaction with other individuals interested in the field of adult education." These statements also indicate how an SDLS supplements the academic program, enhances the preparation of professional adult educators, and provides opportunities for participation. In conclusion, this model offers other graduate programs in adult education an opportunity to enhance the education and development of those who will shape the future of the field. REFERENCES Lewis et. al., - Page 21 Aker, G. (1962). The identification of criteria for evaluating graduate programs in adult education. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin. Brookfield, S. (Ed.). (1988). TRAINING EDUCATORS OF ADULTS: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF GRADUATE ADULT EDUCATION. London: Routledge. Constitution of the Adult Education Colloquium. (1987). Tallahassee: The Florida State University. Courtney, S. (1989). Defining adult and continuing education. In S. B. Merriam & P.M Cunningham (eds.), HANDBOOK OF ADULT EDUCATION, (pp. 15-25). San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Daloz, L. (1986). EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND MENTORING. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darley, J. (1962). The graduate school as a professional school. In N. Henry (Ed.). EDUCATION FOR THE PROFESSIONS. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education. Elias, J., & Merriam, S. (1980). PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ADULT EDUCATION. Huntington, NY: Krieger Freer, K. (1992). [personal interview]. Tallahassee, Florida. Griffin, V. (1971). Thinking about a graduate program in adult education. Unpublished paper. Toronto, Ontario: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Houle, C. (1956). Professional education for educators of adults. ADULT EDUCATION, 6, 132-133. Houle, C. (1988). The emergence of graduate study in adult education. In S. Brookfield (Ed.). TRAINING EDUCATORS OF ADULTS: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF GRADUATE ADULT EDUCATION. London: Routledge. Jensen, G., Liveright, A., & Hallenbeck, W. (Eds.). (1964). ADULT EDUCATION: OUTLINES OF AN EMERGING FIELD OF STUDY. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. Knowles, M. (1962). THE ADULT EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Lewis et. al., - Page 22 Winston. Knowles, M. (1964). The field of operations in adult education. In G. Jensen, A. Liveright, & W. Hallenbeck (Eds.), ADULT EDUCATION: OUTLINES OF AN EMERGING FIELD OF STUDY. Washington, DC: Adult Education Association of the United States. Knowles, M. (1978). The ADULT LEARNER: A NEGLECTED SPECIES (2nd ed.). Houston: Gulf Publishing. Knowles, M. (1980). The MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION: FROM PEDAGOGY TO ANDRAGOGY (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books. Liveright, A. (1988). The nature and aims of adult education as a field of graduate study. In S. Brookfield (Ed.). TRAINING EDUCATORS OF ADULTS: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF GRADUATE ADULT EDUCATION. London: Routledge. Sheehy, G. (1976). PASSAGES: PREDICTABLE CRISES OF ADULT LIFE. New York: Dutton. Both authors are former presidents of the Florida State University Adult Education Colloquim. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 THE NEED FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION FOR THE DEAF: ARE ADULT EDUCATORS LISTENING? Kimberly A. Townsend Doctoral Candidate in Adult Education The Pennsylvania State University ABSTRACT This article addresses the need for improved educational programs for deaf adults. An historical perspective of the philosophy and methodology for educating the deaf provides a background for understanding the current problems for hearing impaired and deaf adults. The article includes information and recommendations for adult educators who want to improve educational instruction, methodology, and programming for deaf adult learners. INTRODUCTION In 1648, educating the deaf was considered a miracle. Townsend - Page 23 Exhibiting the Philosophicall verity of the subtile Art, which may inable one with an observant Eie to Heare what any man speaks by the moving of his lips. Upon the same Ground, with the advantage of an Historic all Exemplification, apparently proving that a man borne Deafe and Dumbe may be taught to Heare the sounds of words with the Eie and thence learne to speake with his Tongue. John Bulwer, 1648 Although the philosophy has changed in the last 300 years, the methodology of deaf education is often the center of controversy. Deaf education has improved through enacting public laws (Klugerman, 1989), increasing schools for the deaf (Cleve, 1987), and changing societal attitudes (Culhane & Williams, 1982). However, the emphasis has been on educating deaf children. In these times of rapid change, deaf adults need opportunities for basic and continuing education in all facets of their lives. This article begins with an historical perspective on educating the deaf followed by information adult educators need to know concerning their deaf learners. The final section provides recommendations to adult educators who want to improve educational programming and instruction for deaf adults. AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON EDUCATING THE DEAF To understand the current educational situation for deaf adult learners, it is necessary to look at the philosophical and pedagogical changes concerning the deaf throughout history. Beginning with the Greeks, Aristotle's view concerning the nature of thought as the basis for language and learning, seemed to confirm the deaf could not be taught. Gannon (1982) notes that Aristotle's influence regarding this incorrect cause- effect relationship led to the delay of education for the deaf for hundreds of years. Even after the fall of the Roman empire, the Christian church made no attempt to educate the deaf, since it appeared evident that the deaf were not endowed by the Creator and consequently would not benefit from education (DiCarlo, 1964). Later, schools, such as the one established by a Spanish monastery in 1550, attempted to use religious education to save the souls of the deaf (Rodda & Grove, 1987). During the nineteenth century, education of the deaf began to accelerate and there was relative freedom for and acceptance of the deaf. They were believed to be intelligent and capable of learning, and sign language became an acceptable form of communication (Sailor, Townsend - Page 24 1988). In 1816, the United States established the New York Institute for the Deaf and Dumb (DiCarlo, 1964), and the world's first college for the deaf, Gallaudet, opened its doors in 1864 (Gannon, 1982). Some set- backs occured when oralism (the position that the deaf should lip read instead of use sign language) created anti-deaf attitudes. This inhibited the acceptance of sign language in the schools as late as 1955 (Sailor, 1988). The first half of the twentieth century saw a gradual increase in educational programs for deaf adults. State schools in Iowa and Minnesota initiated correspondence courses for their former pupils who were deaf in an effort toward continuing education. In St. Louis, evening basic education classes were held in English, math, and vocational programs (Cleve, 1987). The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s increased awareness of all minority groups' needs, including the deaf. This awareness grew into action with the establishment of the National Theater for the Deaf (Gannon, 1982) and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (Welsh, 1982). The first serious effort to institute adult education classes for the deaf occurred in 1963 when the San Fernando Valley State College started an area-wide adult education program enlisting deaf participants for a leadership training program (Jacobs, 1989). The momentum grew as various cities started adult education programs for the deaf in metropolitan areas such as Washington, D.C.; Flint, Michigan; Kansas City, Missouri; and in four Wisconsin communities. In the 1970s, community colleges, vocational schools and postsecondary schools began to place more emphasis on programs for the deaf (Gannon, 1982). In 1979, the California State University established the Deaf Adult with Need (DAWN) program. The goal of the program was to select and familiarize deaf persons with methods and materials in adult education and to develop leadership within the deaf community. The strongest move to educate deaf adults occurred in 1979 with the development of the Center for Continuing Education at Gallaudet University. The Center worked in consortium with a network of continuing education programs in Washington, D.C., demonstrating programs to mainstream deaf adults (Cleve, 1987). The center evolved into the College for Continuing Education (CCE), comprised of the following units: Programs in Adult and Community Education (PACE), Extension and Summer Programs office, and the National Academy, which coordinates professional training (Jacobs, 1989). WHAT ADULT EDUCATORS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT DEAF LEARNERS Townsend - Page 25 External prejudice and misconceptions are the major barriers for the deaf. Understanding adult learner needs is a basic precept of adult education practice and in regard to the deaf student, it is essential. The hearing teacher or program planner may have little in common with deaf adults, and in order to better meet the student's needs, adult educators must learn about the deaf culture and community. DEMOGRAPHICS To describe population characteristics, sociologists typically divide society into subgroups based on culture, race, gender, religion, and income. The deaf population is present in all areas, fitting in everywhere, and yet because of deafness, nowhere. The deaf adult is not easily characterized because there is relatively little research on deaf adults. They are as diversified as their hearing peers, and although society holds certain stereotypes for the deaf, members of the deaf community may have no more in common with each other than their deafness (Malone, 1986). Rodda and Grove (1987) report 13.5 million adults in the U.S. have some degree of hearing impairment ranging from hard of hearing to prelingually deaf, and 400,000 people become deaf before the age of nineteen. In addition, there is a higher percentage of men than women who are prevocationally deaf (Cleve, 1987). According to the April 1989 issue of AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, of the individuals who are in some form of deaf education, 70% are white, 14% are Black and 12% are Hispanic. THE DEAF COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY The deaf community develops its own culture. There is a wide range of psychological and sociological consequences involved in having a separate community, and individual development takes place within attitudes and values of the culture (Rodda & Grove, 1987). Jacobs (1974) writes that the deaf community is close- knit and enjoys the advantages of a small town. By the nature of the problem, deafness is different from other disabling conditions, and the deaf culture is strong, well-established, and proud of its heritage (Rodda & Grove, 1987). A major reason often cited for the development of the deaf community is the shared communication of sign language (Neisser, 1983). However, the community also provides the deaf individual with a strong sense of identity (Culhane & Williams, 1982). In addition, deaf individuals feel more at ease within the community and Townsend - Page 26 95% of deaf adults marry deaf partners (Jacobs, 1974). In a hearing environment, people will often visit by phone, while the deaf are more likely to visit in person, creating a more social atmosphere. The deaf community is also very independent and has consistently refused income tax exemption. They maintain their own clubs and have built a tradition of self-help and mutual support (Neisser, 1983). As with any community, there are differences among individuals. Culhane and Williams (1982) report that status within the group involves factors of education, sophistication, race, age, and communication skills, which indicate parallels with the hearing world. Membership in the community is based on the desire to belong, as well as acceptance from the group. However, membership from birth is rare since the majority of deaf children are born to hearing parents (Rodda & Grove, 1987). EMPLOYMENT Although deafness is not related to socio-economic level, some hearing impairments are associated with poor living conditions (Rodda & Grove, 1987). This disadvantage often begins with school placement and continues into adult life. Deaf adults often earn 20% less than their hearing peers (Malone, 1986) while nonwhite, prevocationally deaf earn 62% of the income of the general population (Rodda & Grove, 1987). In 1970, deaf women earned 60% of their male counterpart's income and the percentage rose only 11% by 1988 (Welsh, 1988). The current employment situation remains bleak for deaf adults. Malone (1986) reports that in some parts of the country, the unemployment rate for deaf people is four times that of the hearing. Furthermore, under employment continues to be a persistent problem. In the 1970s the unemployment rate was about the same for both deaf and the hearing persons. However, within ten years unemployment for the deaf increased as changes in the economy occurred and hearing baby-boomers competed for jobs. Deaf workers are found in every type of job, but there is a disproportionate representation of deaf adults in clerical and service occupations (Cleve, 1987), in which technology creates the greatest threat for loss of jobs. Deaf adults are overrepresented in the skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled jobs, while they are underrepresented in the professional and administrative professions (Birnbaum, 1982). EDUCATION Educating the deaf can be complex because of diverse communication methods, the range of educational Townsend - Page 27 settings, and historically low level of English skills (Akamatsu & Stewart, 1987). In discussing the barriers of educational settings, the focus is often on the lack of interpreters and counselors. The opposing viewpoint is that the deaf have no problems in the classroom, because they can lip read. However, Glass (1974) reports only 23% learn to lip read effectively. The most effective educational vehicles are schools like Gallaudet University because of the total dedication to the needs of the deaf (Birnbaum, 1982). Hurwitz (1970) points out that it is important to be sensitive to what deaf people want to learn, not what society thinks they ought to learn. Often barriers are created through stereotypic images of the deaf(Lane, 1988). In his review of literature on typical deaf adult behavior in educational settings, descriptors such as "socially isolated", "intellectually weak", "behaviorally impulsive", and "emotionally immature" were noted. Lane suggests these characteristics present false images because of biased and inadequate testing procedures. Although education has become more accessible to the deaf, there remains another serious obstacle: reading underachievement (Gormley & Frazen, 1978). Reading is one of the most neglected areas of education despite the fact that it is the primary method of communicating academic material (Rodda & Grove, 1987). Crandell (1982) writes that society has not succeeded in teaching the vast majority of deaf people to read at a level that will allow them to succeed in the academic and professional world. Lane (1988) reports the average deaf school graduate has only achieved a fourth grade reading level. Malone (1986) notes there is a lack of educational programs for the deaf who need continuing education for success. As seen throughout history, attitudes of society toward the deaf have a strong influence on educational programming (Culhane & Williams, 1982). Earlier in this century, it was a common belief that deaf children showed a slower rate of academic achievement and should therefore be entered into school later. Over eighty years later, the average deaf adult completes less than 12 years of school (Cleve, 1987). RECOMMENDATIONS TO ADULT EDUCATORS A deaf person's requirement for continuing education is even greater than that of the hearing because there is a great need to keep up with the fast changing economic and job markets. But most deaf adults cannot use most of the current adult education offerings without special provisions to bridge the communication gap Townsend - Page 28 (Costello, 1977). However, deaf adults must be given the opportunity to make their own decisions about their educational needs. Broussal (1982) notes that education for the deaf is geared toward compensation. Manual communication, lip reading, or a combination are broadly offered in adult education programs and are aimed at compensating for the loss of hearing. However, a more important issue is not simply compensation, but recognition and understanding of the deaf culture. Adult educators can combine their expertise in working with adults with a practical knowledge of the needs of deaf learners to enhance continuing education for deaf adults in three areas: teaching, program planning, and research. TEACHING Broussal (1982) writes that the best advice for educators who are concerned about working with the deaf is that after noting the physical limitation, and making every effort to neutralize the adverse effects of the physical environment, TEACH. Teaching to meet the needs of deaf learners requires their learning styles, which may include increasing the use of visual aids to enhance a lesson. Instructors should consider using a variety of methods. Lectures have not proven effective for deaf learners who must rely on lip reading or interpreters. Tebo (1984) describes the effectiveness of using the dramatization/discussion model at the Rhode Island Rehabilitation Association in which workshops for the deaf were presented in a program called "Information Please". The use of role play eliminated the need for an intermediary between the speaker and the audience. Brick (1967) also supports the use of role play with the deaf because it bridges the gap between the real world and the classroom by giving the learner an opportunity to try different behaviors, act out conflict, and gain a better understanding of differing viewpoints. The manner of communicating between the hearing educator and the deaf student is important. When an interpreter is used, teachers should avoid the tendency to address the interpreter instead of the student. The interpreter is merely a vehicle for communication. Some deaf adults lip read, for the instructor must to face the students when speaking. Raising the voice is not recommended since it not only draws attention to the deaf adult and annoys their hearing peers, but makes it more difficult to accurately read the Townsend - Page 29 exaggerated lip movements. Learning sign language can open doors for educators and students. Although deaf students who become part of a hearing class would not necessarily expect the teacher to sign while instructing, teachers who know the language of their students can provide better academic counseling, act as role model, and get to know the student on a more personal level. PROGRAM PLANNING Program planning begins with a working philosophy about the goals, methods, and attitudes regarding the learner. Program planners who start with a perspective of deaf learners as being deficient or not the norm, will create barriers instead of building bridges for the deaf adult learner. Changing such a perspective is essential. For example, Rodda and Grove (1982) comment that deaf adults need more opportunities to interact with hearing peers. Perhaps a better view would be for hearing adults to have greater opportunities to interact with their deaf peers. Instead of starting with a belief of what is normal, program planners should look specifically at the needs of deaf adults. Culhane and Williams (1982) write that in planning educational programs for the deaf, it is important to address strategies that promote social growth. The best way to understand the needs of adult learners is to ask the learners themselves. In his discussion of planning programs for deaf adults, Boyle (1981) emphasized the importance of using the deaf community to get input and guidance. Leadership and support in the deaf community is vital to the success promotion of a program (Lassiter, 1974; Mayes, 1971). Learning about the deaf culture is essential to understanding the educational needs of the deaf. Adult educators can learn about deaf adults by becoming involved in organizations for the deaf and hearing which can often be found in the community or in higher education settings. In this way, adult educators can come to understand deaf adults from the perspective of their culture. RESEARCH The dissemination of research through publications and conferences can dispel assumptions, myths and fears about working with deaf adults. There has been little research in the field of adult education on deaf adults. Research on deaf education is dominated by the needs and programs of deaf children. Adult education Townsend - Page 30 researchers can bring a new perspective to studying this special population. These researchers begin with questions that focus on the aspect of being an "adult" and what that means to the educational process, whereas other researchers begin with the characteristic of "deafness" which can ignore the special needs of deaf adult learners. Working with community organizations who serve deaf adults can provide a practical starting point in identifying the areas of needed research. In addition, becoming involved with the deaf community and its leadership, can enable researchers to focus on areas which deaf adults see as important. Another source of information can be found at Gallaudet University because of its total dedication to the needs of the deaf throughout their lifetimes. CONCLUSION Education for the deaf has focused mainly on the needs of children. Yet it is the deaf adult who must deal with the rapid changes of today's society which require greater literacy, workplace, and professional development skills. Without continuing education, deaf adults cannot effectively compete with their hearing peers. Of even greater significance is that the lack of education for deaf adults creates greater boundaries and barriers in a hearing society. A review of history indicates a changing philosophy about educating the deaf. Yet there has been little emphasis on the adults of this special population. The experience and expertise of adult educators can do a great deal to enhance the educational programming for the deaf. The wisdom of Myles Horton refers to the need of working with today's adults if we are to change the conditions for the future (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). The field of adult education asks pointed questions about specific issues related to adults. It is this capacity of the field which will open doors for another part of the adult population -- the deaf. REFERENCES Adler, E. P., & Williams, B. R. (1974). Services to deaf people in the seventies. In R. Hardy & J. Cull (Eds.), EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEAFNESS (pp. 3-23). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Akamatsu, C. T., & Stewart, D. A. (1987). A model Townsend - Page 31 program for training teachers of the deaf. AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, 132(5), 366-371. Birnbaum, D. S. (1982). An analysis of government job status for the hearing impaired. THE DEAF AMERICAN, 35(3), 15-26. Boyle, P. G. (1981). PLANNING BETTER PROGRAMS. New York: McGraw-Hill. Brick, L. (1967). The use of role playing as an educational and therapeutic device with the deaf. JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION OF THE DEAF, 2, 53-58. Broussal, L. R. (1982). Education for the handicapped. In C. Klevins (Ed.), MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION (pp. 106-112). Canoga Park, CA: Klevins. Bulwar, J. (1648). THE DEAFE AND DUMBE MAN'S FRIEND. London: Printed for Humphrey Moseley. Cleve, J. V. (1987). GALLAUDET ENCYCLOPEDIA OF DEAF PEOPLE. New York: McGraw-Hill. Costello, E. (1977). Continuing education for deaf adults: A national needs assessment. AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, 122(1), 26-32. Crandell, K. E. (1982). Reading and writing instruction for deaf young adults. In D. Sims, G. Walter, & R. Whitehead (Eds.), DEAFNESS AND COMMUNICATION (pp. 372-391). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkens. Culhande, B., & Williams, C. (1982). SOCIAL ASPECTS OF DEAFNESS. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University. Darkenwald, G. G., & Merriam, S.B. (1982). ADULT EDUCATION: FOUNDATIONS OF PRACTICE. San Francisco: Harper & Row. DiCarlo, L. M. (1964). THE DEAF. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gannon, J. (1982). Historical perspectives on deafness, THE DEAF AMERICAN. 35(2), 5-8. Glass, A. (1974). Deafness and its effect. In R. Hardy & J. Cull (Eds.), EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEAFNESS. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Gormley, K. A., & Franzen, A.M. (1978). Why can't the Townsend - Page 32 deaf read? Questions on asking the wrong questions. AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, 123(5), 543-547. Hurwitz, S. N. (1970). Social enrichment of the deaf. HEARING AND SPEECH, 38(5), 4-7. Jacobs, L. (1989). A DEAF ADULT SPEAKS OUT. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University. Jacobs, L. (1974). The community of the adult deaf. AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, 119, 41-46. Klugerman, P. B. (1989). Developmentally disabled adults. In S. B. Merriam & P. M. Cunningham (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION (pp. 599-610). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lane, H. (1988). Is there a psychology of the deaf? THE DEAF AMERICAN, 38(3), 13-17. Lassiter, R. A. (1974). Work adjustment for people who are deaf. In R. Hardy & J. Cull (Eds.), EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEAFNESS. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Malone, O. (1986). The adult deaf learner: A very neglected species. LIFELONG LEARNING, 10(3), 8-11. Mayes, T. E. (1971). Adult education for deaf people in the Seventies. JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION OF THE DEAF, 4(3), 110-116. Neisser, A. (1983). THE OTHER SIDE OF SILENCE. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Newman, P. (1970). Innovative research into services for the adult deaf population. THE DEAF AMERICAN, 23(4), 11. Rodda, M., & Grove, C. (1987). LANGUAGE, COGNITION, AND DEAFNESS. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rosen, R. (1983). Education and employment: Hand and hand. THE DEAF AMERICAN, 35(7), 3-4. Sailor, D. P. (1988). Deaf leadership and deaf rights: An historical view. THE DEAF AMERICAN, 38(2), 11-12. Stewart, L. G. (1971). The needs of deaf people in the seventies. JOURNAL OF REHABILITATION OF THE DEAF, 4(3), 30-36. Townsend - Page 33 Tebo, G. (1984). Using a dramatization/discussion model in educating deaf adults. THE DEAF AMERICAN, 36(7), 12-15. Welsh, W. & Walter, G. (1988). Earnings of hearing impaired college alumni as reported by the Internal Revenue. THE VOLTA REVIEW, 90(2), 12-15. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 TOWARDS AN ANTI-RACIST, FEMINIST TEACHING METHOD Tania Das Gupta Assistant Professor, Sociology Department Atkinson College, York University, Ontario ABSTRACT This paper presents contemporary ideas and writings about anti-racist and feminist education and a corresponding teaching methodology. The article discusses the essential elements of anti-racist, feminist education and the curricular implications of this teaching approach, emphasizing Canadian perspectives and literature. It concludes by making recommendations for creating an institutional climate and structure in which these alternative pedagogies can be practiced. INTRODUCTION Anti-racist education in general and teaching methods in particular are of increasing interest to educators in advanced capitalist countries of the West, where there are significant non-European populations residing as citizens, immigrants, and refugees. This fact, along with the development of popular movements against racism and sexism, such as the larger women's, civil rights, and labour movements (Leah, 1991), have made anti-bias education an agenda item for educators. Elsewhere in the world, variations of this theme exist in efforts to bridge systemic inequalities that have historically existed between men and women and between different castes, classes, and races. In all these efforts, education is frequently viewed as a midwife to a society which is proactively fighting discrimination. Throughout this article, the phrase "people of color" refers to people who are defined as "non-white", except when referring to government and other formal documents which often use different terminology, such as "visible minority." People of European, background Das Gupta - Page 34 will be referred to as "white." The racial naming of people is problematic because "race" is a social construct based on superficial physical characteristics. Racial identities and labels emerge through a complex process of struggle, imposition and negotiation, involving socially disempowered groups, dominant group members, and hegemonic legal and political institutions. Currently, "people of color" seems to be the least objectionable reference to non- white peoples in Canada. Factors Influencing Change on Campus Problems of sexism and racism, like harassment and segregation, have always been present on university campuses (Yawney, 1990) just as they have existed in every sphere of Canadian society. However, in the 1970's and 1980's, these issues were made more visible by organizations of women and people of color which demanded systemic approaches to eradicating discriminatory attitudes and practices. Feminist and anti-racist movements in contemporary Canada integrated the two oppressions emanating from race and gender issues, sometimes with a third, namely classism (Vorst, 1991). This integration of race, class and gender issues has been led by women of color in the community While these discriminatory relations exist at the institutional and systemic realms where they are reproduced by power structures, it has to be recognized that individual attitudes and actions play a pivotal role in translating power differences into daily life (Allan, 1988). As influential institutions, universities should fight sexism and racism. Moreover, under the contract compliance program of the Government, universities are now obliged to initiate Employment Equity Programs for women, aboriginal groups, visible minorities, and people with disabilities (Equity Counts, 1991). Incidents of racial harassment on campus have dramatized the need to urgently address these issues (de Leon & Saunders, 1992). REVIEW OF LITERATURE Epistemologies and Assumptions Anti-racist and feminist education are not "subjects" or "add-ons". They represent a process and an approach to the teaching and learning dialectic. Lee (1985) stated that "anti-racist education is a perspective that permeates all subject areas and school practices. Its aim is the eradication of racism in all its forms..."(p.8). Shrewsbury (1987) argued that where Das Gupta - Page 35 feminist pedagogy is in process, the classroom is a "liberatory environment" where students and teachers are engaged with themselves, with the materials they study, with others they struggle against, and with the communities and other social change movements One of the most important writers and practitioners of anti-racist education is Barbara Thomas. Even though she discusses primarily an anti-racist approach, her ideas are equally relevant for other forms of critical pedagogy, including feminist pedagogy. In "Principles of Anti-racist Education" (1984), she discusses five principles related to an anti-racist, feminist teaching approach: (a) dealing with power inequalities (b) recognizing alternative bases of knowledge (c) viewing the educational system in the context of the larger political economy (d) involving the entire society, not just the targets of discrimination, and (e) promoting a collective struggle rather than an individual one. Principle One The first principle deals with acknowledging power inequalities. According to Thomas, this is what differentiates "anti-racist education" from "multicultural education." While multiculturalism promotes the sharing and celebration of diverse cultures as a way of furthering racial "harmony", she argues that this does not solve the problem of racism. Thomas states: It would be nice if all cultures are equally powerful in this country...whether one is talking about the aspects of culture which derive from one's gender, class, race or ethnicity. Unequal power not only limits the dimensions of one's culture which can be legitimately expressed. More significantly unequal power limits one's ability to earn a living. (p.21). The importance of power inequalities in society which enables certain groups, in this case men and whites, to dominate other groups, such as women and people of color, have to be addressed by anti-racist, feminist educators. These educators have to provide space and an environment in which racism, sexism, prejudices and stereotypes can be discussed and analysed. Moreover, knowledge and skills have to be developed in students to enable them to identify, analyze and act against them in appropriate ways. Principle Two Secondly, Thomas (1984) argues that culture has to be Das Gupta - Page 36 viewed as dynamic rather than stereotypical as it has generally come to be seen. Culture must be viewed as being created by the daily lived experiences of a people, rather than being a monopoly of an elite. Therefore, it includes the people's struggles and incorporates an historical understanding of a culture. This means that the experiences, viewponts and knowledge bases of members of the community including those at the margins of it, have to be acknowledged and incorporated into classroom discussion. This requires a rethinking of our concept of knowledge, how it develops, who has it, and how to develop it further. Principle Three The third point that Thomas (1984) makes is that anti- racist educators have to view the educational system as part of the overall political economy in which we live. Others who have made a similar argument include Sarup (1986), Mazurek (1987) and Shrewsbury (1987). They argued that the educational system does not provide true equality of opportunity to students. As part of a society marked by inequalities, schools reproduce these inequalities in the name of meritocracy. Schools maintain differential rewards to motivate some people to "sacrifice"; they are then labelled as "more talented and intelligent". Schools also maintain unequal values of social roles, e.g. doctor over janitor, nurse over mother, farm owner over farmworker, etc. These value judgments are made on the logic that the latter roles are "less" important than the former for society's survival, or certain roles are more difficult than others. Therefore, some discrimination is allowed openly and in fact encouraged. Anti-racist and feminist educators would argue that the ideology of meritocracy is mediated by classism, racism, and sexism. Given this understanding that schools are reproducing inequalities, what can educators do to challenge the situation? Thomas (1984) says that students can be enabled to develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to understand and fight the inequalities and to strategize against discrimination. They can be taught diversity of opportunities, as well as the limitations inherent in society, skills of advocacy, debating, making presentations, and lobbying. Shrewsbury (1987) suggested teaching other skills such as planning, negotiation, evaluation, and decision-making. This type of training leads to leadership development of women students and those of color, and prepares them to engage in social transformation. Principle Four Das Gupta - Page 37 The fourth principle discussed by Thomas (1984) is that the fight against racism has to involve everyone. This implies that racism is not just a "black problem," nor is it a "white problem." It is a social problem whose eradication necessitates a social movement. However, Thomas (1984) feels that the leadership will be provided by people of color. She adds that some white people will resist the movement because they stand to lose social power as a result of it. In contrast to anti-racist educational theory, feminist educational theories tend to assume that the students in feminist courses will be predominantly the subjects of the discourse, i.e. women. Male participants are the exception rather than the rule. Courses on anti-racism in contrast tend to be multi-racial, although specialized courses for and by Black women exclusively have also existed (Omolade, 1987). Progressive educators have to become knowledgeable about the anti-racist and feminist movements and bring that knowledge into the classroom through curricula. That knowledge has to be legitimized and not labelled as "hot-headed radicalism." In order to update themselves in an ongoing way, teachers must engage in active research and community outreach. Principle Five Finally, Thomas (1984) concludes by insisting that anti-racism has to be a collective movement rather than an individual, isolated struggle. This means there needs to be a teachers' movement in this regard. Anti- racist education is a political process. The sense of a collective consciousness is also a very important feminist principle in education. Shrewsbury (1987) discusses the notion of "community" as being fundamental in feminist pedagogy in order to enable learners to reach individual and collective goals. Reynolds (1991) talks about the importance of encouraging students to consider the role they and their knowledge can play in fostering social change. Eichler (1990) concludes that the link between women's studies and the women's movement is crucial for the effectiveness of feminist courses and for maximizing learning. Discourse of Possibility Simon, Brown, Lee, and Young (1988) in DECODING DISCRIMINATION, develop a pedagogy based on a "discourse of possibility." In this discourse, a teacher begins with the assumption that racism and sexism are not natural to humans and that they can be eliminated. The discourse of possibility has four Das Gupta - Page 38 basic characteristics. They include (a) developing a critical approach (b) creating new systems and practices (c) legitimizing alternative practices, and (d) including perpetrators as well as the targets of discrimination in a social change process. The preceding section, reviewed some of the key assumptions and principles that form the basis of an anti-racist, feminist teaching philosophy. The next section discusses the practical aspects - curriculum and classroom practices - that apply these principles. CURRICULUM Curriculum has to be global as opposed to ethnocentric (Tator, 1987/88). This means going beyond an "add-on" approach to an "infusion" approach, where different experiences and perspectives are integrated into the core curricula. Some people have referred to this approach as being inclusive. In practical terms, it means that the teacher has to "search out a broad range of literature, poetry, music, art, oral history and biographies (Tator, 1987/88, p. 8)." The Censorship Debate Lee (1985) and Taxel (1978/79) present the debate on censorship that exists in any discussion on non-biased curricula, particularly in the area of classics. While there have been instances of removing books from libraries because of bias, they have been few and far between. In cases where it has happened, it was deemed to involve "hate literature". For instance, a book called LITTLE BLACK SAMBO was removed from Board libraries in Toronto (Lee, 1985) and the Regina Public School Board removed three Canadian history textbooks for their racist portrayal of Native Peoples (Tator, 1987/88). However, Lee (1985) suggests that there is no agreement on censorship and that it is only a partial solution. A more constructive approach is to empower students to develop the skills to detect bias in learning materials for themselves. This is also congruent with developing critical skills, which is a key principle in anti- racist and feminist education. Not only should books be subjected to critique but also films, course descriptions, newspapers, student experiences, vocabulary and language (Lee, 1985). The Hidden Curriculum Tator (1987/88) emphasized the importance of subjecting the "hidden curricula" to scrutiny, including such Das Gupta - Page 39 things as the "school calendar, celebrations, food services, athletics, assemblies, concerts, bulletin boards, hallway displays..." (Tator,1987/88, p. 9). The Ministry of Education (1980) in Ontario published a comprehensive listing of questions for detecting bias in such materials. Again, enabling students to detect bias for themselves develops their independence from teachers and their competence as change agents. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ From listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu Mon Oct 13 18:44:45 1997 Date: Wed, 16 Jul 1997 08:15:48 -0400 From: listproc@pulsar.acast.nova.edu To: aedmod@fcae.acast.nova.edu Subject: GET HORIZONS VOL7N1 (1/1) [2/2] Archive HORIZONS, file vol7n1. Part 1/1 (subpart 2/2), total size 135124 bytes: ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------ Beyond analyzing curricula for bias, Lee (1985) writes: "In order to make effective use of material which may be biased, you must assess not only the material, but also yourself, your students, and your teaching situations" (p.44). This quotation reflects a holistic understanding of the teaching processes as well as the larger classroom experiences (including interactions with other students) which are a part of it. Lee (1985) encourages teachers to ask these questions in their efforts to assess the overall curricula: br;.sk 1;.in 10 1. How do I feel about discussing the issue of racism? 2. What do I say if students begin to make racist comments? 3. To what extent have the students' life experiences prepared them for discussing this material? 4. What other material on this issue have the students studied? 5. Are there activities taking place in the school which will facilitate the examination of issues in the material, e.g. special assemblies, guest speakers, Black History Month, focus on the Holocaust? (p.44) Thus, curricula is not limited to formal textual materials, but also include interactions, activities and environmental factors, which contribute to the climate of the school. Curriculum Bias in All Disciplines People often associate bias with literature or social science subjects only. This is an error since bias exists in all curricula. Taxel (1978/79) says: "we must view curricula materials (and organization) not as a mere collection of neutral artifacts but rather as 'value governed selections from a much wider universe of possible knowledge and collection principles'"(p.72). Tator (1987/88) talks about ways anti-bias approaches can be incorporated even into seemingly objective subjects as math. She argues that the contributions of people of color to the development of math can be highlighted in order to counter the notion that only Western civilization has had a role in this discipline. Das Gupta - Page 40 She also suggests including issues of discrimination in the study of statistics and graphs. In the same vein, science and geography can also incorporate anti-bias curricula by examining the concepts of race and gender, their alleged links with intelligence, and issues related to disease, healthcare, and food. An excellent contribution to this area is the book ANTI-RACIST SCIENCE TEACHING (Gill & Levidow, 1987), produced by anti-racist advisory teachers of ILEA (Inner London Education Authority). Case studies are presented on sickle cell anaemia, nutrition and hunger, the Bhopal disaster, and the labelling of students by means of biased assessment tools. Creating New Curricula The collective work by teachers to develop anti-bias curricula is a concept which is encouraged by Sarup (1986). The development of ANTI-RACIST SCIENCE TEACHING involved a collaborative process of teachers' sharing classroom materials and experiences and presenting papers at conferences. Such a process is happening in several parts of Canada such as Toronto, British Columbia (Kuehn, 1991), Alberta, and Saskatchewan. When the Gulf War broke out, the British Columbia Teachers' Federation developed a 108 page curricula unit on the background to the situation in the Middle East within 10 days. A group of teachers and university faculty in association with the social studies teachers group and the Peace and Global Education group were responsible for pulling this unit together. The unit was used across Canada. Anti-racist and feminist curricula development may become an extension of the regular teaching responsibility simply as an effort to provide materials which deconstruct traditional biases. Listening To Marginalized Voices Anti-racist and feminist teaching involves a process of empowering, giving voice to, and listening to women and people of color. This principle can be included in the process of curricula development. The case of the Baffin Island Writers' Project is an excellent illustration (McAuley, 1991). Recognized authors have visited the Baffin, conducted workshops, and met community members to develop the writing, editing and publishing skills of local writers. The project is monitored by an Inuit Advisory Board. The project has produced a number of by-products: (a) a bilingual Inuktitut/English literary magazine, (b) a Das Gupta - Page 41 number of other publications which include contributions from both young Inuit students and community elders, and (c) participant application of desktop publication technology, facilitated by donations from Apple Canada Education Foundation. The Baffin Island project also highlighted the need to provide support and extra training (in this case literacy and computer training) to learners who have historically been excluded from such education. Omolade (1987) has talked about the need for similar programs to develop writing and literacy skills of Black women whom she taught. Such programs are absolutely essential in the process of empowering learners, particularly those who have been in the margins of academia. On a smaller scale, Toronto's Flemington Public School, known for its anti-racist innovations (Madge Logan, personal communication, January 6, 1991), regularly invites parents of students to come in as guest speakers and talk about their work. This validates their experiences and knowledge base as well as providing students with positive role models from their own communities. On a theoretical level, these cases illustrate a reversal of the stripping of women and people of color from "cultural capital" (Taxel, 1978/79). What allows a group to assert its knowledge as "knowledge for all" in the form of official curriculum is political and economic power in society at large. The reason why marginalized groups have not been involved in the production of official knowledge and why their knowledge has often been dismissed is their lack of power in society. Anti-racist and feminist teaching seeks to end this injustice. Classroom Practices Experiential Teaching In anti-racist and feminist teaching, the experiences of students become central in the teaching process. The best results are obtained when students can work together on collaborative projects involving opportunities for discussion. Some have called this a "student-centered" approach, where experiences around race, class and gender are points of departure. Acknowledging Differences We have to get away from the axiom "I see all my students in the same way" or "I don't see my students Das Gupta - Page 42 as black, white, purple, or green". Indeed, individuals have social identities that have been formed by their location in gender, race, ethnic, class, and a myriad of other hierarchies. These identities affect the learning and teaching process. Arnold, Burke, James, Martin, and Thomas (1991) "spiral model" begins from the experience of students. They reflect on their experiences to identify patterns in them. Next, the teacher or educator builds on the experiences with the addition of new information and theoretical underpinnings. This is followed by allowing participants to practice their skills in strategizing and planning for action. Finally, they have a chance to actually engage in action. This model integrates several principles of anti-racist and feminist teaching. It values the experiences and knowledge of the participants and breaks away from the model of the teacher being the "expert." The educator and participants relate as equals, teaching and learning from each other through a process of dialogue, rather than a lecture. At the same time, it does not render the teacher/educator invisible, a trap that some feminists have written about (Gardner, Dean & McKaig, 1989). The teacher takes on a variety of roles as facilitator, resource person, synthesizer or someone to resolve conflicts. The spiral model also allows participants to work towards making changes. It brings into unity theory and practice, action and reflection. Variety in the Classroom If a variety of activities are included in classrooms, there is potential for reaching people with varied learning styles. For example, women have argued that they learn in different ways than men do simply because of their different social experiences. Similarly, people from various cultures learn differently. A rich body of curricula materials exist on such activities as power plays (Godfrey, 1986), role plays, drawings, paintings, video, film, poster making, sculpturing, etc. (Arnold & Burke, 1983). These can be utilized by educators to plan their class activities. Besides being more inclusive of people with varying learning styles, these creative activities are also fun and energizing, elements which become critical in dealing with the serious topics of racism and sexism. A powerful critique of experiential education as an end in itself has been advanced by Bannerjee, Carty, Delhi, and Heald (1991). They say that the purpose of describing our experiences is to connect with others' Das Gupta - Page 43 experiences and then contextualize those experiences within transhistorical realities, such as imperialism, colonialism, gender, and race. Not to make these crucial links is to fall into the trap of subjective idealism. They speak against turning classes into therapy sessions. Non-threatening Environment A requirement of the experiential and dialogue format of education requires that the classroom be a non- threatening environment in which people can express emotions and feelings in safety and with sensitivity. Educators have to model such behavior by sharing experiences themselves, as well as by examining, identifying and resolving personal assumptions, stereotypes, prejudices, and feelings. In generating a non-threatening classroom environment, it is useful to remember feminist principles of empowerment. Shrewsbury (1987) says that empowerment is energy, capacity and potential "to act, to move, to change conditions, for the benefit of the whole population" (p.8). It does not represent power to dominate others. This means that empowerment does not merely lead to a change in leadership, leaving the power structures intact, but involves dismantling the power structures themselves. The response to "differences" in the classroom in an appropriate way is a crucial component of encouraging communication in the classroom (Gardner, Dean & McKaig, 1989). Different experiences and perspectives must be encouraged and acknowledged as positive contributions to classroom discussions. Constructive Confrontation Feminist educators have developed ideas on how to confront and disagree without lashing out. Schniedewind (1987), for example, talks about developing skills in giving constructive feedback, taking into account the needs of both parties. Shrewsbury (1987) emphasizes the need to combine critical thinking with respect for others. The following are some suggestions made by Arnold, Burke, James, Martin, and Thomas (1991): 1. Talk in the first person 2. Be specific 3. Challenge the idea or action, not the person 4. Mention the positive along with the negative 5. Ask questions to clarify (p. 130) Other strategies on challenging, confronting and Das Gupta - Page 44 dealing with conflict have also been developed as these invariably emerge in any discussion on racism and sexism. The Teaching Staff Overall, the educator has a very key role in facilitating anti-racist and feminist education. A variety of attitudes, skills, and information are required in order to fulfill this role effectively, raising the need for professional development and in- service training for teachers. Resources and curricula guides are also needed in order to develop new materials for the classroom. Moreover, teachers' colleges should include anti-racist and feminist approaches so that graduates are able to deal with racist and sexist incidents and also to teach students how to deal with them. Lee (1985) has addressed the need for teacher training and development throughout her discussion of anti-racist education. She provides a rich array of activities that could be implemented on teachers' professional development days. In order to achieve education equity for students, employment equity for teachers has to be implemented also. Madge Logan (personal communication, Jan. 6, 1991) emphasized that the identity of the teacher is an important component of the curriculum, supporting a relational notion of knowledge production. Sarup (1986) also emphasizes the need for employment equity in promoting antiracist education. So far this paper focussed on classroom practices and curriculum issues in developing an anti-racist, feminist approach in education. However, the classroom is an integral part of a large, complex institution, i.e. the university. The latter plays a very important role in creating a climate for critical education. The next section, identifies some strategies that the university could consider in fulfilling this role. INSTITUTIONAL STRATEGIES The strategies in this section touch on the following issues: 1. Faculty 2. Curriculum 3. Resources and Support for Faculty 4. Access and Retention of Students Das Gupta - Page 45 5. Climate 6. Financial Support Faculty First, employment equity for people of color (along with women) has to be a top priority for colleges, particularly at departmental levels, so that faculty and staff are more representative of the student body. In the event of no new faculty hirings, creative ways in which people from communities of color and women can be integrated into teaching programs must be explored. Curriculum Second, an effort has to be made to integrate critical approaches not just in anti-racist or feminist courses but in all courses. Perhaps a generic course on gender, race, and class could be designed for all students. Such a course has been designed at the University of Berkeley and is being considered by other American universities also. Resources and support for Faculty Third, a resource group should be initiated of faculty who are who are interested in developing ideas in critical teaching methods in general, in anti-racist, feminist teaching in particular. Access and Retention of Students Fourth, bridging programs should be replicated in all departments in order to create access for marginalized communities. Support services should also be strengthened in order to promote retention. Such services as cross culturally sensitive and feminist counselling, multilingual information services, writing labs, tutoring and mentoring programs as well as scholarships and bursaries could be made available to students. Outreach programs for academic programs which are focused around feminist and anti-racist issues are essential in building links with marginalized communities and to integrate community concerns in the curricula. Climate Fifth, universities need to ensure safe campuses and a less alienating environment in order to promote a sense of belonging in classrooms. The chilly climate in academia could be reduced by making sure that bulletin boards, notices, artwork, and interior decorations Das Gupta - Page 46 create an environment which is free from harassment and one in which women and men from diverse ethnic, racial, and class backgrounds feel more welcome. Financial Support Finally, in order to implement the objectives mentioned above, it has to be ensured that financial support will exist despite the current atmosphere of cutbacks and downsizing. SUMMARY Both anti-racist and feminist education have developed as an alternative to the traditional banking model of education (Freire, 1988). Feminist and anti-racist educators have argued that the assumptions and strategies of traditional educators have marginalized those people who hold minimal social power, such as women, people of color, and immigrants. Therefore, anti-racist, feminist education falls in the tradition of "critical pedagogy" as advanced by Paulo Freire (1988). However, Freire's ideas have been further critiqued and developed by anti-racist, feminist educators. The following list summaries anti-racist, feminist precepts for practice. 1. Develop a critical perspective among students 2. Identify discriminatory practices and replace them with bias free practices 3. Develop the skills of giving and receiving constructive feedback 4. Make all curricula inclusive of the experiences of marginalized groups. 5. Develop student skills in identifying bias in curricula 6. Include within curricula both the formal learning materials as well as the interactions in the larger learning environment 7. Create new curricula in collaboration with other educators 8. Include marginalized voices in the curricula 9. Utilize experiential activities in teaching Das Gupta - Page 47 10. Combine theory and practice 11. Use a variety of activities in teaching 12. Nurture a non-threatening environment in the classroom in which open communication can take place. 13. Let "differences" be articulated and heard in the classroom, rather than be silenced. 14. Confront people without silencing them. Finally, this article recommended institutional changes which Universities can make in order to provide the context in which critical educational approaches can be implemented. IMPLICATIONS Concrete case studies, such as the ones documented by Gardner, Dean, and McKaig (1989) can help one to understand the complexity of engaging in anti-racist, feminist pedagogies. The struggles, triumphs, and resistance to such efforts can teach new lessons in the field of critical adult education. The barriers to engaging in alternative educational approaches within traditional institutions of learning are immense, and these barriers need to be analysed and eliminated. Anti-racist, feminist educators attempt to empower students so that they can take a more active role in their own learning process. What happens if the teacher is a woman of color and did not have a lot of "traditional authority" to begin with? Some educators (Hoodfar, 1992) have begun to address this question based on their own teaching experiences. Existing literature tends to assume that teachers/educators are a homogenous mass. Therefore, the writings reflect the experience of teachers of the dominant race and sex, albeit with a feminist and/or anti-racist perspective. The identity of the teacher is an important issue to focus on in the implementation of alternative pedagogies. Similarly, the identity of students is important to consider in the practice of alternative methodologies in education. Universities tend to be the bastion of privileged groups and classes in society. How can students from such sectors be made to acknowledge and counteract their own, as well as society's, racist, sexist, and classist assumptions and practices? Finally, how realistic is it to eliminate bias completely, if we are simultaneously arguing that Das Gupta - Page 48 individuals represent a particular vantage point which is conditioned by their location within class, race, gender and other hierarchies? These and other related questions still need to be addressed. REFERENCES Allan, J. (1988). 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Canada: Society for Socialist Studies. Yawney, C. (1990). Campus and community - The race relations certificate at York University. Das Gupta - Page 51 PROACTIVE, 9(1), 3-12. NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Fall 1993 ___________________________________________________ CUMMULATIVE INDEX OF NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 1 Number 1 ___________________________________________________ Adult Education in Nicaragua: Adapting and Growing in a Changing Reality by Samuel Simpson Volume 2 Number 1 ____________________________________________________ Propaganda in Adult Education by Richard Novak The Informing of Adult Education by Adult Development by Nancy E. Hagan Procedures for Writers in the Field of Adult Education: How to Make Your Writings More Consistently Accessible within Computerized Information Databases by Judith Gwinn Adrian Feminist Methodology: A new Way of Knowing? by Carolyn Chase Volume 2 Number 2 __________________________________________________ Into 'Terra Incognito': Considerations on the 'Timeliness' and 'Importance' of the Carnegie Corporation's Early Involvement in Adult Education by Michael Law Women and Literacy in Tanzania by Sharon Cramer Bell Physical Learning Environments: Why Be Concerned? by Rodney Fulton Introducing Metaphors of Chaos to Adult Education by Robert Domaingue Index - Page 52 Volume 3 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Comparison of Computer and Audio Teleconferencing: One instructor's View by Norman Coombs Intellectual Suppression: Australian Case Histories, Analysis and Responses by Roger Boshier Volume 4 Number 1 ___________________________________________________________ Straight Time and Standard Brand Adult Education by John Ohliger A Comparison of Folk High Schools in Denmark, and East and West Germany by Robert Wendel A Descriptive Appraisal of Functional Literacy in Nigeria by Muyiwa Igbalajobi and Ayodele Fajonyomi Intentional Changes by David Price Volume 5 Number 1 _________________________________________________________ Community Adult Education In America: An Overview by Michael W. Galbraith and David Price Community Adult Education In Developing Countries by Linda Ziegahn Facilitated Community Development In A Rural Area by Allen B. Moore and Mary Anne Lahey Envisioning A Sustainable Society: Learning Our Way Out by Daniel V. Eastmond Volume 5, Number 2, Fall 1991 ___________________________________________________ Technology in the Classroom of the Future by Wayne Hurtshuh Model Building and Strategic Planning in Continuing Higher Education by Paul J. Edelson Index - Page 53 Culture Wars by Michael E. Ehringhaus Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 1992 ___________________________________________________ Characteristics of Adult Education Students and and the Factors Which Determine Course and Program Completion: A Review by Mary F. Sheets Working Toward More Effective Adult Christian Education: A Case Study of Youngville Baptist Church by Robert C. Ballance In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development by Susan Slusarski Volume 6, Number 2, Fall 1992 ____________________________________________ Customer Satisfaction Studies: Implication for Job Related Continuing Education by J. A Farmer, J. G. Land, L. L. Gilbert, & J. R. Ainsley. Bringing the Partners Together in Workplace Literacy: A Canadian Perspective by M. C. Taylor, L. Shohet, & C. Macleod. Killing the Spirit: Higher Education in America by Terrence R. Redding NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1993 _____________________________________________ CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION, seeks manuscripts for its 1993 issues. The editors solicit submissions of original research, conceptual analyses, case studies, and book reviews relating to adult education efforts. Manuscripts - Page 54 Faculty, graduate students, practitioners, and others concerned with adult education are welcome to submit articles. Once it receives the manuscripts, NEW HORIZONS IN ADULT EDUCATION coordinates a double-blind review by four of its editorial board members. Submissions must be authors' original work and not previously published. Manuscript Preparation: There are no length requirements; reviewers will evaluate articles to see that the subject and substance warrants the length. Submitted articles should include the title of the manuscript, full names, institutional affiliations, and positions of authors. Manuscripts should conform to the rules governing manuscript style and references outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), Third Edition. Text and references normally underscored should instead be typed in upper case (all caps). Authors should use written text explanations of concepts and data rather than diagrams or graphics, but simple tabular data, may be included. Forms of Submission: NEW HORIZONS accepts manuscripts in the following forms: 1) Electronic mail transmitted electronically to the new electronic address for NEW HORIZONS: horizons@alpha.acast.nova.edu 2) Electronic copies stored in ASCII, the universal computer language, and mailed on floppy disk to NEW HORIZONS, Nova University, Programs for Higher Education, Abraham S. Fischler Center for the Advancement of Education, 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 3) Printed copies mailed to NEW HORIZONS, Nova University, Programs for Higher Education, Abraham S. Fischler Center for the Advancement of Education 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Fl 33314 Authors who submit printed manuscripts that are ultimately accepted for publication will provide, if possible, their manuscripts in electronic form. ------------------------------ Cut here ------------------------------